,- 









** 

































THE ELEMENTAL 



0JHL&MIB3SI&S' SBWOA.'lPIKD^.^IL. ©WE^IS* 



\J ♦ 



CHAMBERS' EDUCATIONAL COURSE 

NUMBER VI. 



/^^t ELEMENTS 






/?* 



ZOOLOGY, 



NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS 




EDITED BY D. M. REESE, M. D , LL. D 



NEW-YORK: 

PUBLISHED BY A. S.BARNES k CO. 

PHILADELPHIA: JOHN BALL. 

H. W. DERBY & CO. 

CINCINNATI. 



' 



1849. 



NX. ry 



CHAMBERS" EDUCATIONAL COURSE. ^^ 

— — — —. —. ——. — ^ 

The object of the following works is to furnish the friends of an improved 
system of education with the books required for carrying- out their views, in 
the actual business of the school-room, and the family circle. 

The Messrs. Chambers (whose works are so favorably known in the different 
departments of literature, throughout this country as well as Europe) have 
employed the first professors in Scotland in the preparation of these works, 
They are now offered to the schools of the United States, under the American 
revision of D. M. Reese, M. D., LL. D. r late superintendent of public schools 
of the city and county of New-York. 



I.— CHAMBERS' TREASURY Of KNOWLEDGE, imparts in one.) 

BY W. & R. CHAMBERS. 

Part 1 Embraces Elementary Lessons in Common Thing* -or things which lie most imme- 
diately around us, and first attract the attention of the young mind. Part 2 Embraces 
Practical Lessons on Common Objects— such as articles or objects from the Mineral, Vege- 
table, and Animal Kingdoms, manufactured articles, miscellaneous substances and objects, Jtc. 
Part 3 Embraces Introduction to the Sciences. This present* a systematic view of nature, 
under the various sciences. Care is taken that the information given should not be a 
superficial view of a lew unconnected phenomena, but a chain of principles calculated, in 
combination, to impress a distinct and comprehensive idea to the mind of the very youmr child. 

This volume is designed for an early reading book, that the scholar may be exercised in reading, 
and at the same time acquire knowledge of such subjects as his capacity will enable him to 
understand. It contains much useful information upon common objects of life. 

II.— CHAMBERS' ELEMENTS OF DRAWING. (Z parts in one.) 

BY JOHN CLARK. 

Part 1 Embraces Exercises, for the Slate. Part 2 Embraces the Principles of Drawing 
and Perspective. 

With but very few exceptions, children are fond of making efforts in Drawing. Furnished with 
a black-lead pencil and sheet of paper, or slate and pencil, they are delighted to scribble 
whatever their fancy suggests. Followed up methodically by the teacher, their infant 
aspirations may lead to the development of much valuable talent. Illustrated by Engravings. 

IH.— CHAMBERS' ELEMENTS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

THHCB PARTS IN ONI. 

Part 1 Embraces Laws of Matter and Motion. Part 2 Embraces Mechanic*. Part 3 

Embraces Hydrostatics, Hy Iranlirs, and Pneumatics. 
In the treatment of the several subjects great care has been taken to render the language simple 

and intelligible. Illustrated by Wood Engravings- 

IV —CHAMBERS' CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRICITY. 

(TWO PARTS IV ONE.) BY D. B. REID AND ALEXANDER BAIN. 

Part 1 Embraces Illustrations, and experiments of the Chemical Phenomena of Daily Life. 
By D. B. Reid, M. D., F. R. S. E Part 2 Embraces Electricity, (statical and current.) 
By Alexander Bain, the original inventor of Electric and Telegraphic clocks. 

This work is designed to facilitate the introduction of Chemistry as an elementary branch of 
education in schools. Illustrated by Engravings. 

V.—CHAMBERS' VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. 

BY G. HAMILTON. M. D. 

Part 1 Embraces the General Structure and Functions of Plants. Part 1 Embraces th* 

Organization of .inimats. 
The object of this work is to unite Vegetable and Animal Physiology, and bring both systems 

under one head, as properly connected and adapted to the mind of the student. 

VI —CHAMBERS' ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY. (Illustrated., 
Presenting a complete view of the Animal Kingdom as a portion of external nature. As the 
composition of one of the most eminent physiologists of our age, it possesses an authority not 
attributable to such treatises in general. 

Vl|._ CHAMBERS' ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. (Illustrated.) 

BY DAVID PAGE. 

The subject is here presented in its two aspects of interesting and important. Interesting, 
inasmuch as it exhibits the progressive conditions of the earth from the remotest periods, arid 
reveals the character of the plants and animals which have successively adorned and peopled 
its surface ; and important, as it determines the position of those metals and minerals upon 
which the arts and manufactures so intimately depend. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, by 

A. S. BARNES & CO., 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New-York. 



INTRODUCTION 

BY 

THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 



The present volume will be found to comprise a complete 
and comprehensive system of Zoology, rudimental it is true as 
compared with voluminous works, but not less systematic or 
thorough. The anatomical structure, and physiological diver- 
sities of every individual being included in the animal world, 
whether at present existing upon the earth, in the air, or in the 
waters of the globe, or found among the fossil remains which 
geology has developed by its researches, so far at least as the 
latter series admit of recognition, will all be found described, 
explained, and illustrated by the ingenious and learned author. 

In its leading divisions, he has adopted the classification of 
Cuvier, modified in conformity with the present improved state 
of the science, and the classification approved by the latest and 
best authorities, the system of Professor Grant of London being 
that to which preference has been justly given. So full and 
satisfactory are the details of the work, that the task of the 
American Editor has been only to add explanations of such 
foreign technicalities as can neither be dispensed with, or sub- 
stituted by synonyms in our own language; and the still fur- 
ther work of affixing analytical questions, to facilitate the use 
of the book in schools, for which it is now chiefly adapted, and 
which have been placed at the foot of each page. They are 
not intended to preclude other questions by the teacher, whose 
examinations may be more critical, descending to minute de- 
tails when these are interesting or important, and eliciting from 
the pupil, as they ought to do, such reflections as the several 
topics may suggest. The wonders of creation, as here disclosed, 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

will afford ample scope not only for intellectual exercise, but 
for moral and religious reflections, of which no teacher should 
fail to avail himself while prosecuting this study. 

The obvious advantages of a single book, comprehending all 
the departments of Zoological science, instead of numerous 
books, severally treating upon its numerous departments, will 
be appreciated by practical teachers. Instead of a distinct work 
upon each of the divisions into which Zoology is subdivided, 
there are manifest advantages in simultaneously studying the 
several sub-kingdoms together, and thus learning their points of 
analogy and their greater or less diversities more readily. In- 
deed, it is believed that the numerous books which have here- 
tofore been considered necessary in learning this science, have 
been among the chief causes of the rare introduction of Zoology 
into the schools. 

An example is seen in the " First books of Natural History" 
by Dr. Ruschenberger, the usefulness of which have been 
abridged, and win continue to be hindered, by the extent of the 
series. This single subject is cut up into no less than five 
volumes, the following topics being separately treated, viz., 
1 Mammalogy; 2, Ornithology; 3, Herpetology and Ichthy- 
ologv ; 4, Conchology ; 5, Entomology ; so that all these 
boons must be separately studied in attempting to learn Zoology. 
And no connected view of the subject can even then be realized 
without comparing each with the other, a labour perplexing and 
embarrassing to the learner. 

This comparison is instituted, because the scientific character 
of Dr. R.'s books is unquestionable, and their diffuse method 
of treating the subject, alone renders the present publication 
necessary for schools, into which, if the science is ever exten- 
sively introduced, it must be in a condensed and simplified 
form. It is from this conviction that the present volume of the 
" Educational Course" has been republished, and is confidently 
submitted as having superior claims which will commend it to 
schools and teachers, as now adapted to their use. 

D. M. R. 



PREFACE. 



The following Treatise (which has already appeared, in an 
abridged form, in the "Information for the People") is de- 
signed to supply a deficiency which the Author has felt, in 
common with many others who are engaged in scientific 
instruction. The elementary works on Zoology that have 
hitherto been in use, are, for the most part, but abridgments 
of systematic treatises, executed by persons quite incompetent 
for the task ; who, having for their object merely to produce 
a saleable book, have expended the chief part of their allotted 
space upon the most popular parts of the subject, and have 
given but a meagre outline of the rest. In the following 
volume an attempt has been made to remedy this deficiency. 
It is not an abridgment of any larger work ; on the contrary, 
its materials have been brought together from a great variety 
of sources ; and the aim of its Author has been to make it, so 
far as space would allow, full and complete in itself. In 
proportioning the amounts allotted to the several departments 
of the subject, regard has been had rather to their respective 
importance than to the degree of interest commonly felt in 
them ; and it is hoped that the account it contains of numerous 
tribes, of which some fall under the notice of almost every 
one, and respecting which there is still much to be learned, 
will stimulate many, among the young especially, to contribute 
by their own exertions to the common stock of knowledge. 

On particular departments of Zoology several good elemen- 
tary treatises exist ; such, for example, as Mr. Westwood's 
Introduction to Entomology, and the books of Animals, Birds, 
&c, published by the Society for promoting Christian Know- 
ledge. But the pleasure and advantage derivable from the use 



6 PREFACE. 

of these is so much greater, when a comprehensive survey of 
the whole Animal Kingdom has previously been taken, that 
it may be hoped that Instructors, availing themselves of the 
means afforded them in the present Treatise, will henceforth 
adopt such a plan, when introducing their pupils to the study 
of this most delightful science. 

Zoology, like other branches of knowledge, is so progressive 
in its character, that a few years make great changes, not 
merely in its details, but in its leading features. Hence, the 
present work will not be found to have an exact correspond- 
ence, in regard to the arrangement adopted, with any of the 
systematic treatises which are usually considered as the stand- 
ards of authority. The " Regne Animal" of Cuvier has been 
followed as to its leading divisions; but many departures from 
the system of that illustrious naturalist have been rendered 
necessary by more recent investigations. The Author has 
endeavoured to make his Treatise convey a fair idea of the 
present state of zoological science ; not admitting innovations, 
unless they appeared to him to rest upon sufficient evidence, 
nor servilely following authorities already becoming antiquated. 
The system of Professor Grant (London University College) 
is the one to which that employed in the present Treatise has 
the closest conformity. 

In conclusion, the Author has only to express the hope, that 
his little work will promote the introduction, into general 
education, of a study which is amongst the noblest that can 
occupy the mind of man — seeing that it brings him to a nearer 
acquaintance with the character and attributes of the Creator, 
whose almighty power, boundless wisdom, and perfect love, 
are displayed in his Works no less clearly than they are set 
forth in his Word. 



CONTENTS. 



ANIMAL KINGDOM. 



S UB-KINGDOM— VER TEBRA TA. 



Class I.— MAMMALIA. 

PAGE 

Bim ana (Man) 37 

Quadrumana (Monkeys) 47 

Simiadae 49 

Cebidae i 52 

Lemuridas 54 

Cheiroptera (Bats) 57 

Rhinolophinae 62 

Phyllosotominae 62 

Vespertilionidae 63 

Noctilioninae ■ 64 

Pteropinae 64 

Insectivora (InsectivorousQuad- 

rupeds) 65 

Talpidae (Moles) 66 

Sorecidae (Shrews) 69 

Erinaceadae (Hedgehogs) 69 

Tupaiadae (Banxrings) 70 

Carnivora (Carnivorous Quadru- 
peds) 71 

Felidae (Cats) 73 

Canidae (Dogs) 75 

Mustelidae (Weasels) 77 

Ursidae (Bears) 78 

Phocidae (Seals) 79 

Cetacea (Cetaceous Animals)- • • 81 

Delphinidae (Dolphins) 83 

Balaenidae (Whales) 84 

Rodentia (Gnawing Quadru- 
peds) - . 86 

Sciuridae (Squirrels) 88 

Muridae (Rats) 90 

Castoridae (Beavers) 91 

Hystricidae (Porcupines) 92 

Cavidae (Guinea-pigs) 92 

Chinchillidae (Chinchillas) 93 

Lepondae (Hares) 94 

Edentata (Toothless Quadru- 
peds) 95 

Edentata-Proper (Ant-eaters)* 95. 

Tardigrada (Sloths) 97 

. Pachydermata (Thick-skinned 

Quadrupeds) 100 

Proboscidea (Elephants) 101 

Pachydermata, True 103 

Suidae (Pigs) 103 

Tapiridae (Tapirs) 104 

1 



PASS 

Solidungula (Solid-hoofedQuad- 

rupeds) 106 

Equidae ( Horses) 106 

Manatidae (Sea-cows) 107 

Ruminantia (Ruminant Quadru- 
peds) 103 

Antelopidae (Antelopes) Ill 

Capridae (Goats) 113 

Bovidae (Ox-tribe) 113 

Cervidae (Stags) 116 

Camelopardae (Camelopards)- • 117 

Moschidae (Musk-deer) 118 

Camelidae (Camels) 118 

Marsupialia (Pouched Quadru- 
peds) 120 

Sarcophaga (Dasyuri) 122 

Entomophaga (Opossums) 123 

Carpophaga (Phalangers) 124 

Poephaga (Kangaroos) 124 

Rhizaphaga (Wombats) 126 

Monotremata (Monotremes)- • • . 126 
Echidna and Ornithorhyncus- • 128 

Class II.— BIRDS. 

Insessores (Perching-Birds) 145 

Conirostres (Cone-beakedBirds) 146 

Corvidne (Crows) 147 

Sturnidae (Starlings) 148 

Fringillidae (Finches) 143 

Buceridae (Hornbills) 149 

Loxiadas (Crossbills) 150 

Dentirostres (Tooth-billedBirds) 151 

Laniadae (Shrikes) 152 

Merulidae (Thrushes) 153 

Sylviadae (Warblers) 154 

Ampelidae (Chatterers) 156 

Muscicapidae (Fly-catchers)- 157 

Fissirostres (Cleft-beakedBirds) 158 

Hirundinidse (Swallows) 1 59 

CaprimulgidaB (Goat-suckers) 160 

Meropidae (Bee-eaters) 1(>0 

Ifalcyonidae (King-fishers)- - - 161 
Todidae (Todies) 161 

Tenuirostres (Slender-billed 

Birds) 162 

Trochilidae (H-umming-birds) 163 
k 7 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Cinnyridce (Sun-birds) 163 

Promeropidae (Hoopoes) 164 

Paradisidae(Birds of Paradise) 164 
Meliphagidae (Honey-suckers) 164 

Certhiadae (Creepers) 165 

(Nuthatches) 165 

(Tree-creepers) 165 

Raptores (Rapacious Birds) 165 

Falconidae (Falcons) 167 

Vulturidae (Vultures) 169 

Strigidae (Owls) 172 

Scansores (Climbers) 175 

Picidae (Woodpeckers) 175 

Cuculidae (Cuckoos) 177 

Ramphastidae (Toucans) 178 

Psittacidae (Parrots) 179 

Rasores (Scrapers) 180 

Phasianidae (Pheasants) 182 

Cracidae (Curasow-birds) 183 

Tetraonidae (Partridges) 183 

Columbidoe (Pigeons) 184 

Cursores (Runners) 186 

Struthio (Ostrich) 187 

Casuarius (Cassowary) 188 

Dromaius (Emu) 189 

Apteryx 189 

(Dodo) 190 

Grallatores (Waders) 19L 

Ardeidee (Herons) 192 

Scolopacidae (Snipes) 194 

Rallidae (Rails) 196 

Charadriadae (Plovers) 198 

Natatores (Swimmers) 199 

Anatida? (Ducks) 200 

Laridcu (Gulls) 200 

Pelicanidae (Pelicans) 202 

Colymbida? (Divers) 203 

Alcidaj (Auks) 204 



Class III.— REPTILES. 

Chelonia (Tortoises) 206 

Chelonidee (Turtles) 207 

Emydee (Mud-tortoises) 210 

Testudinidae (Land-tortoises)- • 211 

En alios auria (Sea-lizards) 213 

Icthyosaurus 214 

Plesiosaurvi 214 

Loricata (Scaly animals) 215 

Crocodiles 216 

Gavials 217 

Cay mans 218 

Vaikia (Lizards] 219 

Lacertinidn (True Lizards) ••• 220, 

IguanidB (Iguanians) 223" 

GeckotidaB (Geckos) 227 

Chaaieleonidae (Chameleons) •• 228 
Scincoidae (Skinks) 290 

OPHEDIA ;S«'rp«-nls) 231 

ColuberidfB (Adders) 831 

Crotalidw (Rattlesnakes) 236 



PAGB 

Hydrophidae (Water-serpents) 238 
Amphisbaenidae (Double-walk- 
ers) 239 

Anguinidae (Snakes) 239 



Class IV.— AMPHIBIA. 

Anoura 243 

Ranidae (Frogs) 243 

Bufoidas (Toads) 246 

Urodela 248 

Tritons 249 

Salamanders 250 

Amphipneurta 251 

Abranchia 252 

Apoda 252 



Class V.— FISHES. 
Division I. — Osseous Fishes. 

Acanthopterygii (Spiny-finned 

Fishes) 262 

Percidae (Perches) 262 

Triglidae (Gurnards) 263 

Sciaenidae (Maigres) 264 

Sparidae (Sea-breams) 264 

Menidae 264 

Squamipennes (Scaly-finned 

Fishes) 264 

Scomberidae (Mackerels) 265 

Tamidre (Ribbon-shaped Fishes) 266 

Theutyes (Lancet-fishes) 266 

Pharynginae Labyrinthi-formae 267 

Mugilidce (Mullets) 267 

Gobiodae (Gobies) 267 

Pectoralcs Pedunculati 263 

Labridae (Rock-fishes) 269 

Fistularidae (Pipe-mouthed 

Fishes) 270 

Malacopterygii Abdominales 

(Soft-finned Fishes) 270 

Cyprinidae (Carps) 270 

Ejsocidae IPikes) 071 

Silurida (Silnri) 272 

Salmonidse (Salmons) 272 

Clupseidae (J icrriugs) 273 

Malacopterygii Sub-Brachiata 274 

GadldaE (Cod-fishes) 274 

Pleuronectidae (Flounders) 275 

Discoboli 276 

Malacopterygii Apoda 276 

Muraenidae (Eels) 276 

Lopiiobranchii (Fishes with tuft- 
ed gills) 278 

Plectognathi (Fishes with cheeks 

united by suture) 279 

Gymnodontes (Naked-toothed 

Fishes) 279 

Scleroderma (File-fuhes) 2o0 



CONTENTS. 



Division II. — Cartilaginous 
Fishes. 

Chondropterygii Branches Li- 

beris et Fixis 281 



PAGB 

Sturiones (Sturgeons) 281 

Selachii 282 

Sharks and Rays 282 

Cyclostomata (Sucker-mouthed 

Fishes) 28$ 



SUB-KINGDOM— ARTICULATA. 



Class VI.— INSECTS. 

PAGE 

Coleoptera (Sheath-winged In- 
sects) 307 

Pentamera 311 

Heteromera 320 

Tetramera 3*21 

Trimera 325 

Orthoptera (Straight-winged)- • 325 

Cursoria 327 

Sanatoria 329 

Neuroptera (Nerve-winged) ••• 331 

Libellulidae 332 

Ephemeridae • 333 

Termitidae 334 

MyTmeleonidas 335 

Hemerobiidas 336 

Hymenoptera (Yoke-winged) - * • 336 

Terebrantia 339 

Aculeata 342 

Homoptera (Equal-winged) 349 

Trimera 350 

Dimera 352 

Monomera 353 

Heteroptera (Unequal-winged) 355 

Geoeorisa 356 

Hydrocorisa 356 

Lepidoptera (Scaly winged) 357 

Diurna 363 

Crepuscularia 365 

Nocturna 367 

Diptera (Two-winged) 372 

Nemocera 374 

Notacantha 376 

Tanystoma 376 

Athericera 377 

Pupipara • • • • 379 

Trichoptera (Hairy- winged)* • • • 380 
Phryganeidae 380 

Strepsiptera (Fan-winged) 331 

Aph ANiPTERA (Wingless) 3S3 

Pulicidae 383 

Parasita (Parasites) 384 

Thysanocra (with organs like 

feet) 384 

Lepismidae 385 

Poduridae ••••• 385 



clxss vil— arachnida. 

PAGE 

Trachearia (Tracheated Arach- 

nides) 387 

Acaridae 387 

Pulmonaria (Lunged) 388 

Pedipalpi 389 

Araneidae 390 

Class VIII.— CRUSTACEA. 

Decapoda 403 

Brachyoura 403 

Macroura 404 

Anomoura 404 

Stomapoda 405 

Amphipoda 406 

L^emodipoda 406 

Isopoda 407 

Cladocera 407 

Phyllopoda (Gill-footed) 408 

Copepoda 408 

ostrapoda 409 

Xyphosura 410 

Class IX.— MYRIAPODA. 

lULID M 412 

Millepedes 412 

SCOLOPENDRID.E 414 

Centipedes 415 

Class X.— ANNELIDA. 

DORSIBRANCHIATA 419 

Nereidae 420 

Tttbicol^e *• 421 

Terricola 422 

Suctoria 424 

Class XL— CIRRHOPODA. 

Pedunculat a 428 

Sedentaria 429 

Class XII.— ROTIFER A... 430 

Class XIIL— EJTTOZOA.. ■ 434 



10 



CONTENTS. 



SUB-KINGDOM— MOLLUSCA. 



Class XIV.— CEPHALOPODA. 

PAGE 
DlBRANCHIATA 444 

Decapoda 444 

Octopoda 445 

Tetrabranchiata 447 

Class XV.— PTEROPODA . • 448 
Class XVI.— GASTEROPODA. 

PULMONEA 456 

Limacinae 456 

Helicinae 457 

nudibranchiata 458 

Inferobranchiata 458 

Tectibranchiata 459 

Heteropoda 460 

Pectinibranchiata 460 

Trochoidae 461 



PAGB 

Capuloidae 462 

Buccinoidae 462 

Ttjbulibranchiata 463 

scutibranchiata 463 

Cyclobranchiata 464 

Class XVII.— CONCHIFERA. 

OSTRACEJE 469 

Mytilace^e 470 

Camacke 472 

Cardiace^e 472 

Inclusa 473 

Brachiopoda 475 

Class XVIII.— TUNIC AT A. 

Ascidub 478 

Salpje 480 



SUB-KINGDOM— RADIATA. 



PAGE 

Class XIX.— POLYGASTRICA 483 



Class XX.— ECHINODERMATA. 

Stellerida 490 

Echtnida 492 

HOLOTHURIDA 496 

Class XXI.— ACALEPHjE. 

PuLMONIGRADA 499 

ClRRHIGRADA 500 



pa ex 
ClLIOGRADA 500 

Physograda 502 

Class XXII— POLYPIFERA. 

Hydroida 504 

Tubularidse 506 

Sertularidee 507 

Helianthoida 508 

Asteroida 513 

Ascidioida 518 

Class XXIII.— PORIFERA . . 526 



ZOOLOGY. 



i. The branch of Natural History termed Zoology, 
[from the Greek, zoon, an animal, and logos, a discourse,] 
is that which treats of the beings composing the Animal 
Kingdom. The general aspect of these, and the charac- 
ters by which they may be ordinarily distinguished from 
plants, are under the observation of every one, and they 
need not here, therefore, be dwelt upon. No person is in 
danger of mistaking an oak for an elephant, a grass for an 
insect, or a sea-weed for a fish ; but when we descend the 
scale, and pass from the highest and most complex, to the 
lowest and simplest of each kingdom, the characters upon 
which we have been accustomed to rely successively dis- 
appear, and we meet with several tribes which it is very 
difficult to assign with certainty to either natural division. 
Thus, in many shell-fish, such as the oyster, we find little 
evidence of sensibility and voluntary power, the two chief 
characteristics of animals ; they are fixed to one spot, like 
plants, during nearly the whole of their lives, and the 
movements which they exhibit are not more striking than 
those of many plants ; but their internal structure — their 
complex digestive apparatus, their heart, and circulating 
system, with the traces of nervous cords and ganglia (cen- 
tral knots), which they present — immediately evinces their 
claim to a place in the Animal Kingdom. On the other 
hand, there are many animalcules in which no structure 
characteristic of the Animal Kingdom can be discovered ; 
and yet they exhibit an activity of motion, evidently influ- 

1. Define Zoology. 

2. What are the two chief characteristics of animals ? 

3. Why are shell-fish regarded as animals ? 

11 



12 ZOOLOGY. 

enced by the sensations they experience, which shows 
them to be far removed from plants. It is when the cha- 
racteristic structure of animals, and the manifestations of 
sensibility and power of spontaneous movement disappear 
together, as is the case in the sponge, that the naturalist 
is the most perplexed in regard to the place he shall as- 
sign to such beings ; and he can only solve the question 
by ascertaining whether the general resemblance is the 
greatest to beings of distinctly animal or of distinctly 
vegetable character. By this criterion, the sponge will 
hereafter be found to deserve a place in the Animal 
Kingdom. 

2. The differences of structure which are most univer- 
sally found to separate animals from plants, are those 
which are connected with the mode in which food is assi- 
milated (or converted into the materials of their own fabric) 
by the beings of the two kingdoms respectively. Thus, 
it may be constantly noticed that plants imbibe their nou- 
rishment either through their external surface, or by pro- 
longations of this into roots and leaves. On the other 
hand, animals nearly always possess an internal cavity, 
the stomach, into which the food is received, and where 
it undergoes a preparation ; and the absorption of it into 
the system takes place by vessels distributed on the walls 
of this cavity. Now, this change is connected with two 
important differences in the nature of their food, and in 
the means by which they respectively obtain it. Plants 
require nothing but a regular supply of water, with car- 
bonic acid, ammonia, and a small quantity of saline mat- 
ter dissolved in it ; and the conditions of their growth 
generally afford them a constant supply of these, which 
they can imbibe by means of their roots and leaves, with- 
out moving from the place in which they are once fixed. 
On the other hand, animals can only be supported by 
materials previously organized, all their food being derived 
from vegetable or animal substances ; this is nearly always 



4. What of sponge ? 

5. What difference of structure and function between plants and 
animals id remarkable / 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION. \% 

in a solid state, and has to be reduced to a fluid form in 
order to be imbibed into the tissues ; moreover, it only 
occasionally comes within reach of the being, and has to 
be stored up for the intervals; and it must be carried, 
during this time, in such a manner as not to interfere with 
the movement of the animal from place to place. All 
these objects are answered by the formation of the inter- 
nal cavity just mentioned: in this the food is reduced, by 
the process of digestion, to a fluid state ; in this it is kept, 
in contact with the absorbent vessels, during the intervals 
of its reception ; and in this it is conveyed from place to 
place, partaking of all the motions of the animal, without 
retarding them. Thus animals may be said to carry their 
soil about with them ; whilst the earth may be termed the 
common stomach of plants. 

3. The life of every animal presents a number of facts 
for observation ; and these may be separated from each 
other according to their character. Thus, we might con- 
sider their structure only — the department of science 
which is termed anatomy; or we might examine their 
actions ox functions — in fact, the history of their lives — 
which is termed physiology. In pursuing either of these, 
however, we might restrict our inquiries to a single ani- 
mal, though it would not be advantageous to do so. The 
objects of the zoologist are different. He sees that the 
several beings included in the Animal Kingdom may be 
regarded not only in their individual aspect, but in their 
relations to each other ; that they form parts of one vast 
plan, as harmonious in itself as that of a beautiful building 
made up of a great number of subordinate parts ; and that, 
whilst the diversities of form and aspect seem almost infi- 
nite, they are evidently subordinate to certain general 
principles, which produce not only the manifest confor- 
mity but the apparent departure from it. The grand aim 
of the scientific zoologist being to discover this plan, he 
employs classification as a means by which to facilitate 
his acquaintance with the vast number of beings that claim 

6. What analogy between the s'omach and the soil? 

7. Define anatomy and physiology. 

8. Wha: agency is employed by rue .scientific zoologist ? 



11 ZOOLOGY. 

his attention. The principles on which this should be 
founded will be presently explained. 

4. But to many this pursuit would be in itself un- 
inviting ; and it may be advantageously united with 
another, by which important assistance may frequently be 
afforded, and which is usually regarded as comprehended 
within the province of the zoologist. This is, the study 
of the habits and instincts of the various beings who^e 
form and structure are to be investigated by the system- 
atise This may become a source of constant interest even 
to the previously uninstructed mind ; but it will afford 
pleasure of a much higher kind, when the intellect is pre- 
pared, by acquirements even of a very moderate degree, 
to observe facts that would otherwise pass unnoticed, to 
comprehend their value, to compare them with each other, 
to trace the wonderful analogies which everywhere connect 
what seemed to be most widely separated, and to rise from 
such observations to the conception of the vast scheme of 
wisdom and benevolence upon which the whole has been 
designed. Well has it been observed, that, "strange, 
indeed, must be the perversion of that mind, which is 
made neither wiser nor better by studying the works of 
Him, whose own wisdom is infinite, and all whose opera- 
tions tend to good and happiness." 

CLASSIFICATION. 

5. On looking at the variety of animal forms around us — 
such as we are familiar with as inhabitants of this country, 
or as natives of other climates collected for our observa- 
tion — the mind naturally associates together with those 
which have the greatest general resemblance, and sepa- 
rates these (although differing in some degree amongst 
themselves) from those with which they have greater dis- 
similarity. It is by pursuing this plan, from one stage or 
degree of resemblance and difference to another, that classi- 
fy mions are formed; and these will be correct according 
to the amount of knowledge upon which they are founded, 



9 Doet he nothing more than classify ? 
10. What moral lessons are acquired in this pursuit? 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 15 

respecting not only the external form but the internal 
structure of the objects they include. Thus, the older 
naturalists placed the Bats among Birds, and the Whales 
with Fishes. In external form there is certainly a great 
correspondence ; but this results only from their adapta- 
tion to a particular mode of existence. Bats produce their 
young alive, and suckle them afterwards, as do all other 
Mammalia ; [from Mamma, the breast, Latin, animals 
which suckle their young ;] whilst birds rear their young 
from eggs : so that these two tribes, similar as they are 
in form and habit, differ most widely in characters of great 
importance. Whales, again, which are truly mammiferous 
animals, differ yet more widely from the class with which 
they are still popularly associated ; being air-breathing, 
warm-blooded, viviparous animals, [producing their young 
alive,] whilst fishes breathe through the medium of water, 
are cold-blooded, and oviparous, [rearing their young from 
eggs.] 

0. Experience teaches that the offspring of any kind 
of animal is similar to its parents, though slight variations 
may be often traced between them ; but a succession of 
beings having: this general conformity is called a race. 
Now, the first object which the naturalist has to deter- 
mine is, whether two races, such as the Negro and Euro- 
pean races of man, or any two breeds of dogs, might have 
had a common origin. If he finds reason to believe that 
their differences are not greater than may be accounted 
for by the influence of accidental causes, and especially if 
he finds one race ever producing the form of another, he 
considers them as springing originally from a common 
stock, and as of one species ; but if he cannot thus account 
for their differences, he regards them as of different spe- 
cies. This division of all the existing forms of animals 
into species is that on which the naturalist has to found 
all his subsequent classification; and it is necessary to 
take great care to avoid errors arising from variations in 
the forms of animals at different periods of their existence. 

11. What is the basis of classification ? 

12. Define oviparous and vivipaious, with examples. 



1(5 ZOOLOGY. 

Thus, the tadpole and the frog, the caterpillar and butter- 
fly, would be referred not only to different species, but to 
different classes, were we not aware that they are only dif- 
ferent states of the same animal ; and many birds have 
been erroneously regarded as of different species, which 
belonged to the same, but presented varieties of plumage, 
depending upon age, sex, and period of the year. Again, 
in the dog and other domesticated animals, the difference 
between breeds is so great, that the naturalist would un- 
questionably rank them as distinct species, were he not 
induced to believe, by other evidence, that they had all a 
common origin. Thus it becomes necessary to know the 
whole history of an animal before deciding positively that 
it came from a different stock to another, to which it may 
bear a strong general resemblance. When several races 
exist in one species, obviously differing from each other, 
these are called varieties : such are the five chief races of 
man, the numerous breeds of the dog, of cattle, &c. And 
amongst the individuals of these are differences which we 
are in the habit of chiefly regarding in man, but which 
a practised eye, accustomed to study any particular race 
of animals (as the shepherd does his sheep, or the Lap- 
lander his reindeer), will detect among them. 

7. A number of species, differing from each other in 
trivial points, but having a strong general resemblance, are 
said to belong to one genus. The genera most nearly al- 
lied are united into one family ; several families into an 
order ; and several orders into a class. The class, there- 
fore, contains a very large number of species, many of 
them differing widely from each other, but all agreeing in 
some prominent and important character. And the classes 
composing the animal kingdom are arranged under four 
groups, on account of their correspondence in certain 
general particulars, and their difference in others; these 
are called sub-kingdoms. This is the alphabet of the 

13. How are animals of the same species distinguished ! 

14. What of varieties and breeds ? 

15. What does a genus include ? 

16. Define the use of the terms family, order, and cla*8 ? 

17. What of sub-kingdoms ? 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 17 

science : and when this has been acquired, the student 
will proceed to his grammar, which consists of such a know- 
ledge of the principal divisions of the animal kingdom as 
will enable him to read the language of nature with un- 
derstanding, so as to learn from the simple name much 
respecting the structure and character of the particular 
specimen, of which he would otherwise be ignorant. 

8. These remarks may be illustrated by reference to the 
common dog, which would be thus described by a natural- 
ist : — 1st, It belongs to the Animal kingdom. It is, there- 
fore, a being endowed with powers of sensation and of 
voluntary motion, and with a stomach for the reception 
and digestion of food. 2d, It is one of the sub-kingdom 
Vertebrata, [from the Latin, verlere, to turn.] By this 
it is known to possess a jointed back-bone, containing the 
spinal marrow, and expanded at one end into the skull, 
the cavity of which contains the brain ; it is also known 
to possess red blood and five senses, and not more than 
four legs or members : these are but a few of the particu- 
lars involved in the idea of Vertebrata, as distinguishing 
them from the other sub-kingdoms. 3d, It is one of the 
class Mammalia, the members of which produce their 
young alive, and nourish them afterwards by suckling ; 
they breathe air during the whole of their lives, and their 
blood maintains a fixed and elevated temperature ; they 
are generally covered with hair, and live on land, and are 
altogether the most highly organized of the Vertebrata. 
To say, therefore, that an animal belongs to the class 
Mammalia, communicates the knowledge of all the fore- 
going particulars to a person but slightly acquainted with 
n aural history. Further, 4th, It is one of the order Car- 
n'nora, [from the Latin carnis, flesh ; and voro, I eat,] 
characterized by its possession of claws or nails, and 
of three kinds of teeth — incisors, or cutting teeth, canine, 
or dog's teeth, and molars, or grinders. In these re- 
spects it agrees with Man and Monkeys, forming the 
two first orders ; but it differs from them in not having a 

18. What is comprised in the class Mammalia ? 



18 ZOOLOGY. 

thumb opposable to the rest of the fingers, and in the 
adaptation of the teeth and general structure to preying 
upon animal food. In these respects, again, it agrees 
with the hedgehog, mole, and other species of the order 
Insectivora ; but it differs from them in having the molar 
teeth raised into cutting edges instead of conical points, 
and in the great size of the canine teeth, by which it is 
adapted to devour the flesh of large animals rather than 
insects. 5th, It belongs to the family Canidas, [from the 
Latin, canis, a dog,] which is distinguished from the Bear 
and Badger tribe by walking on the ends of the toes instead 
of on the sole of the foot (the former mode being termed 
Digitigrade, from the Latin digitus, finger or toe, and 
gradus a step, and the latter Plantigrade from the Latin, 
planta, the sole of the foot, and grains, a step) ; and it is 
separated from the Cat tribe, which is also digitigrade, by 
the absence of the power of retracting the claws, which 
is possessed by the latter, (ith, It belongs to the genus 
Canis, distinguished from other genera of the tribe by a 
peculiar adaptation of the teeth to partly vegetable food. 
7th, It is of the species Cams familiaris, for which Lin- 
naeus could find no character distinguishing it from the 
wolf, but the peculiar way in which it carries its tail. 
Here the naturalist strictly stops ; but it is interesting to 
him to trace the origin of the variety of which the speci- 
men may be a member, whilst its possessor only is inte- 
rested in the individual history of the animal. 

PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 

9. When we contrast an animal with a vegetable, we 
see that the former, in common with the latter, lives and 
grows, converts into its own substance the food which it 
obtains from external sources, arrives at maturity, repro- 
duces its kind, and at last dies and decays. But the ani- 
mal performs an additional set of actions, to which there is 
nothing analogous in the plant. It feels, and it acts spon- 

19. What in the order Camivura? and family Canida? 
20 What of the genus and species ? 
VI Define the teclimals. 






PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. \) 

taneously. Sensibility (implying- consciousness) and i.he 
power of voluntary movement, are then the distinguishing 
characteristics of animals. Hence, to the first set of 
changes, performed alike by both kinds of living beings, 
is given the name of organic functions, whilst the others 
are designated as animal functions. On looking at any 
one of the higher animals, it is very easy to distinguish 
the parts of the structure by which these functions are re- 
spectively performed. To the former are appropriated 
the stomach and intestines, for the digestion of the food : 
the heart and blood-vessels, for conveying the nutritious 
ingredients, separated from it in the form of blood, to all 
parts of the body ; the lungs, for purifying this fluid by 
exposure to the air; and many others, all contained, how- 
ever, in the cavities of the trunk. The instruments of the 
latter are the nervous system and organs of sensation, 
principally situated in the head ; and the muscles, which 
constitute the bulk of the limbs, and which, by their con- 
tractions in obedience to the impulses of the will, produce 
the voluntary movements of the body. There will be 
found, in the different groups of animals, a remarkable 
variation in the relative development of these two systems. 

10. The term skeleton is commonly applied to the sys- 
tem of bones, which are well known to form the internal 
framework of the higher classes of animals. But it is 
convenient to apply it to those harder parts of the fabric 
of all animals, which are destined for the support and pro- 
tection of the softer tissues ; as, for example, the firm 
envelope of the crab or lobster, the shell of the oyster, or 
the stony cells of the coral-polypes. 

11. In considering the primary subdivisions of the 
Animal Kingdom, it is desirable to view them at first in 
their most simple aspect, and to regard merely the points 
of agreement amongst all the beings contained in each 
group, and their most striking differences from the mem- 
bers of other groups. The subordinate differences amongst 

the forms contained in any one of the primary groups, 

, 

22. Wherein do organic, differ from animal functions ? 

23. What organs occupy the trunk, and the head respectivelv ? 

24. Define skeleton. 



20 ZOOLOGY. 

will be subsequently attended to. Following- the arrange- 
ment of Cuvier, which in this respect is unexceptionable, 
we divide the animal kingdom into four sub-kingdoms — 
Vertebrata, Artictjlata, Mollusca, and Radiata. 
The principal characteristics of these will now be pointed 
out. 

12. The Vertebrata derive their name from the pe- 
culiarity of their skeleton, which essentially consists of a 
back-bone or spinal column, formed of a number of sepa- 
rate pieces, so united as to combine great strength with 
flexibility. These are termed vertebrae. Each is perforated 
with a large aperture : and, when all are united, a con- 
tinuous tube is formed, in which is lodged the spinal 
marrow, a very important part of the nervous system 
(this is quite different from the marrow of other bones, 
which is an oily substance, subservient to their nutrition.) 
At one extremity, the spinal column is extended into a 
large bony structure, the skull, which is especially de- 
signed for the protection of the brain (a large nervous 
mass, which may be regarded as an expansion of the 
spinal marrow) and of the organs of sense connected with 
it. At the other extremity it is contracted into a tail, the 
size and prolongation of which are usually greater in pro- 
portion to the small size of the skull. Connected with this 
spinal column are a series of ribs, which pass off from it 
on each side, and generally meet again in a breast-bone, 
enclosing a cavity (that of the chest), in which are con- 
tained some of the organs of nutrition. Appended to it 
are two pairs of members or extremities, which are usually 
the instruments of locomotion. Although these are very 
differently formed in the different classes, they are essen- 
tially the same in all. The arms and legs of man, the 
four legs of a quadruped, the wings and legs of a bird, 
and the fins of a fish, are all exactly alike in their position, 
and in the elements of which they are composed. The 
ton of the Vertebrata is internal, being clothed with 
muscles by which its various parts are moved ; and, from 
what has been said, it is evident that it is particularly 

25. What are Cuvier's sub-kingdoms? 

26. Describe the structure of the first. 






PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 21 

destined for the protection of the nervous system, which, 
from the high place of this group in the scale of animal 
beings, is the organ of the greatest importance in the 
whole structure. Vertebrated animals are endowed with 
aJi the special senses — sight, smell, hearing, and taste — 
the organs of which are situated in the head ; besides the 
general sense of touch, which is common to the whole 
body. They have all red blood, which is propelled 
through the system by a muscular heart. The mouth is 
furnished with two jaws, which are placed one above or 
before the other ; there are never more than two, and 
they never open sideways as in the Articulata. They are 
usually armed with teeth, which are in structure very ana- 
logous to bone. 

13. The Vertebrata are characterized by a higher degree 
of intelligence than is possessed by any other group. The 
animal powers of sensibility and spontaneous motion are 
also greatly developed ; and in accordance with these, a 
complete symmetry or correspondence between the two 
sides of the body is observable externally. But this sym- 
metry does not extend to the organs of vegetative life, 
which are irregularly disposed in the cavities which they 
occupy. 

14. In the Articulata, the skeleton is external, enve- 
loping not only the nervous system but the entire body, 
with the muscles which move it ; these, as is well seen 
in the crab or lobster (which are the largest animals of this 
group), being attached to the interior of the firm casing. 
This skeleton is formed of a number of pieces or segment*, 
jointed or articulated together— whence the name of the 
group. The centipede [from the Latin centum, a hun- 
dred, and pedes, feet] is a very characteristic illustration 
of this structure. The legs, as well as the body, are here 
seen to be enclosed in a firm envelope, of which the pieces 
are connected together by a flexible membrane ; and the 
segments of the body are nearly alike along its entire 
length. But in the higher classes of this sub-kingdom, 

27. What are the peculiar endowments of this group ? 

28. Describe the structure of the second sub-kingdom. 

29. What example of this group is cited as characteristic ? 



22 ZOOLOGY. 

where the movement is performed entirely by the legs, 
as in Crustacea, or by the legs and wings, as in Insects, 
the segments of the body to which these are attached are 
firmly united together, in order to give their muscles a 
fixed point from which to act. But, in the lower classes, 
such as the leech and worm, where the extreme flexibility 
of the body, and the change of its dimension, are the only 
means of locomotion (no members being present), the 
whole envelope of the body is so soft that the division into 
segments is scarcely perceptible. The nervous system 
of the Articulata is not by any means so highly developed 
as that of the Vertebrata ; in general, the organs of taste 
and vision are all that can be detected in them ; those of 
hearing and smell being possessed only by a few of the 
higher tribes. The number of legs, when these are present, 
is often very great ; they are never less than six. More 
than one pair of jaws usually exist, and they open later- 
ally. The blood is white, and only in the highest classes 
is propelled by a powerful heart. The Articulata have 
their whole structure adapted to great activity of locomo- 
tion, and to the performance of instinctive actions of a 
high character. The class in which this is most evident 
— that of Insects — is by far the largest in the whole ani- 
mal kingdom. The body, which is usually of small size, 
derives its principal bulk from the organs of animal life, 
especially the muscles which move the extremities; and 
the la'eral symmetry is even more remarkable in them 
than in the Vertebrata, extending in part to the organs 
of nutrition, as well as to those of sense and motion. 

15. The group of Mollusca, [from the Latin, mollis, 
soft,] must be described more by its negative than its 
positive characters. The body, as the name imports, is 
here soft, and destitute of any distinct skeleton. It is 
enveloped in a loose elastic skin, which is termed the 
mantle; and the outer surface of this has often the power 
of secreting a shell. But this shell is by no means adapted 
to the form of the animal ; it has no regular series of joints 

30. Name some of the varieties of structure in the articulata ? 

31. Which class in the animal kingdom is the most numerous ? 



PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 23 

for the purpose of facilitating the movement of the body, 
and it has no prolongations for giving protection and sup- 
port to locomotive appendages. Moreover, of two species 
closely alii.- d in general structure, it is often present in 
one and absent in the other, as in the snail and slug; and, 
when present in both, often diff-rs much in form ; so that 
it cannot be regard d as a part of the structure essential 
to our idea of a molluscous animal. That idea is princi- 
pally founded upon the softness of the body, the high 
development of the organs of digestion, nutrition, &c. — 
in fact, of the system of vegetative life, which constitutes 
the bulk of the body ; and, on the contrary, the low deve- 
lopment of the powers of sensation and locomotion, and 
the organs of animal life. Many of them are entirely 
fixed to one spot during all but the very earliest period of 
life ; and in the lowest species, there is a tendency to 
aggregation into a compound structure, like that which is 
seen in the zoophytes, [from the Greek zoon, an animal, 
and phut on, a plant, from the fancied resemblance to the 
nature of both.] The number of Mollusca possessing 
active powers of locomotion is comparatively small ; and 
of those which are not entirely fixed, the general charac- 
ter is sluggishness. The blood is generally white ; and 
is often propelled by a powerful heart, and distributed 
through a complex system of vessels, eren where the 
animal seems almost inert. Where any correspondence 
between the two sides of the body exists, it is usually 
restricted to those parts which are concerned in the func- 
tions of animal life ; especially the head, on which the 
organs of special sense (when they exist) are placed. 

16. The division Radiata, [from the Latin, radius, a 
spoke of a wheel,] includes the lowest members of the 
animal kingdom, and those, therefore, which most nearly 
approximate to vegetables. There is a great tendency in 
the animals of this group to associate into compound 
structures, in which each individual has a certain degree 



32. How may the third group be described ? 

33. Is the system of vegetative or animal life well developed ? 

34. What is their general character ? 



24 ZOOLOGY. 

of connection with the rest. Thus are formed those 
assemblages which, from their general resemblance to 
plants, are commonly called Zoophytes (animal plants). 
But as, in investigating the characters of a tree, we study 
the separate flowers and leaves, so, in studying the 
zoophytes, we consider the individual polypes, [from the 
Greek, p>his, many, and pous, a foot,] which form them. 
These polypes, in common with the higher kinds of 
radiated animals, which are formed to exist separately 
(such as the star-fish), are distinguished by the circular 
arrangement of their organs around a centre, in which the 
mouth is placed ; and from this arrangement the name of 
the group is derived. There is thus a repetition of simi- 
lar parts ; and, as in most other instances where this is 
the case, a great power of reproducing those which have 
been lost. In many of the Radiata there is no distinct 
skeleton ; in others a very firm support exists, almost 
always partaking of the circular arrangement of the soft 
parts. The sea-anemone is a good example of the lower 
forms of this group ; the star-fish, or sea-urchin, of the 
higher; very few species belonging to it possess much 
sensibility or power of locomotion. In many instances 
there are no distinct blood-vessels, but the nourishment is 
conveyed to the tissues by direct absorption from the 
external surface and from the walls of the stomach. 

SUB-KINGDOM— VERTEBRATA. 

17. Setting off with the idea of a vertebrated animal as 
one possessing an internal bony skeleton, essentially com- 
posed of a jointed spinal column, containing the spinal 
marrow, and expanded at one extremity into a bony case 
for the reception of the brain, having usually members or 
appendages for locomotion, which never exceed four in 
number, endowed with all the five senses, and in general 
with considerable activity, having red blood, and altogether 
a more complex organization than the lower classes pos- 



3 r >. What of the next division? 

3 Describe zoophytes and polypes., with examples. 



VERTEBRATA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 2o 

sess, as well as a higher degree of intelligence — we next 
proceed to consider upon what principles this extensive 
group may be subdivided into others, which, agreeing 
in all these particulars, shall yet differ in other important 
characteristics. 

18. The ordinary observer would readily establish three 
subdivisions or classes, upon the three well-marked types 
of form which he perceives to be adapted to existence in 
the three different elements. He sees that one large 
group is entirely confined to the water; that the form of 
its body is peculiarly adapted for motion in that medium ; 
that its members are constructed for most advantageous 
propulsion in it ; and that it is incapable of existing, at 
least for any length of time, out of it. This group he 
calls by the name of Fishks; and he naturally associates 
with it some of a higher class, which resemble it in exter- 
nal appearance and mode of life. Another large group 
he observes to be formed to pass a great part of its life 
buoyed up only by the air ; that the form of its body, the 
construction of its members, and the peculiar covering 
with which these are invested, specially adapt it for this 
peculiar mode of support, and for rapid motion through 
the element it inhabits ; and that it is incapable of exist- 
ing for more than a few minutes under water. This is 
the class of Birds ; and with it, also, the ordinary observer 
associates a portion of a superior class, which is adapted 
in part to a similar mode of existence.. A third group 
would consist of animals possessed of four feet, adapting 
them to a residence on the earth, and to motion on its sur- 
face ; these would also be found to agree in their incapa- 
bility of living beneath water like fishes, or of rising into 
the air like birds. But further examination of these 
quadrupeds, [from the Latin quator, four, and pes, a foot.] 
would disclose some important differences in structure and 
vital actions, which separate them into two great divisions, 
very widely apart from each other. It is soon observed 
that some are warm-blooded, maintaining a constant and 



37. What is the natural subdivision of the Vertebrata into three 



25 ZOOLOGY. 

elevated temperature, whilst the others are cold-blooded, 
their bodily heat varying with that of the atmosphere, and 
in general being but little above it ; that the former are 
covered with hair or something analogous to it, whilst the 
latter are coated with scales ; and that the former produce 
their young alive, or are viviparous, and nourish them 
afterwards by suckling, whilst the latter rear them from 
eggs, or are oviparous. Hence this group is subdivided 
by the naturalist into two, of which one — that of Mamma- 
lia — is superior in its general organization to birds, whilst 
the other— that of Reptiles, [from the Latin repere, to 
crawl,] — is intermediat ebetween birds and fishes. The 
scientific characters of these groups will next be con- 
sidered. 

19. Fishes are oviparous vertebrata, inhabiting the 
water, and respiring that element by means of branchiae 
or gills, which are filamentous prolongations of the surface, 
into which the blood is propelled, in order to be brought 
into relation with the air contained in the surrounding 
water. The heart only contains two cavities ; one of 
these receives the blood which returns from the system, 
and the other propels it through the gills, from which it 
is conveyed by the blood-vessels to the body at large. 
They are in general cold-blooded, but few of them main- 
taining a temperature above that of the surrounding 
medium. Living habitually in an element which is 
nearly of the same specific gravity with their bodies, 
fishes have no weight to support, and have only to propel 
themselves through the water. Accordingly, we find 
their structure adapted for great freedom of motion rather 
than for firmness and solidity ; progressive motion is 
chiefly accomplished by the lateral action of the spine, 
which is endowed with great flexibility. The vertebrae, 
instead of being articulated by a flat surface, as in the 
Mammalia, or by a ball-and-socket joint, as in serpents, 
have each of their surfaces concave, and these glide over 
a bag of fluid which is interposed between each pair of 



38. How aro quadrupeds dis inguished into varieties ? 

J'J. liuo whai iwu classes do naturalists divide this group ? 



VERTEBRATA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. W 

vertebrae. The tail is flattened vertically ; and it is by its 
movement from side to side that the fish is urged forwards, 
as a boat by a scuiler. The pectoral fins, [from the 
Latin, pectus, the breast,] which answer to the hands of 
man, and the ventral fins, [from the Latin, venter, the 
belly,"] which represent the feet, serve rather as steering 
than as propelling organs ; and they also assist in raising 
and depressing the animal in the water. In a large pro- 
portion of this class, the skeleton is cartilaginous [from 
the Latin, cartUago, gristle] only; and in a few of the 
lowest the vertebral column is not divided into distinct 
portions, but forms one continuous tube of gristle or even 
of membrane only. The surface of the body of fishes is 
almost always covered with scales; and these are some- 
times quite bony, and fitted closely together, especially 
where the internal skeleton is soft. 

20. Reptiles are also oviparous, cold-blooded verte- 
brata ; but, in their adult state, they breathe air, which is 
introduced into lungs or internal cavities ; and they 
mostly are formed to live on land — those which inhabit 
the water being obliged to breathe at the surface. Their 
heart possesses three cavities, one of which receives the 
blood from the lungs, and another from the system at 
lar^e ; the pure and impure blood are mixed in the third 
cavity, and the fluid is propelled by it partly to the lungs 
and partly to the body. Thus, only part of the blood ex- 
pelled from the heart is exposed to the influence of the 
air at each contraction ; and this deficiency is accompanied 
by a general inertness of the other functions. Their 
motions are chiefly confined to crawling and swimming ; 
for though a few at times can run and leap very quickly, 
their general habits are sluggish, their sensations obtuse, 
and their digestion slow. Hence they can exist for a long 
time with a very feeble exercise of these functions, under 
circumstances that would be fatal to animals in which 
they are performed with greater activity. In cold and 
temperate climates they pass the whole winter in a state 
of torpidity. There is greater diversity of form and 

40. Describe the characteristics of fishes. 



23 ZOOLOGY. 

structure among the members of this class than in any 
other division of the vertebrated series. The tortoises, 
lizards, and serpents, appear so different that a common 
observer would separate them widely ; and yet they not 
only agree in all the foregoing characters, but pass into 
each other by links of transition so gradual that it is diffi- 
cult to classify them. There is one group which, in its 
adult condition, bears a general correspondence with rep- 
tiles, and has been commonly associated with them, but 
which only arrives at this condition by passing through a 
kind of metamorphosis, [from the Greek meta, after, and 
rnorphe, a change of form,] like that of insects : this is 
the frog tribe, which includes several animals bearing the 
form of lizards and serpents, but differing from them in 
having a soft naked skin, instead of a scaly one, and in 
passing the early part of their lives — that which, in the 
frog, is called the tadpole state — in a condition like that 
of fishes in all essential particulars. These differences 
have been regarded by some naturalists as establishing 
their title to rank as a distinct class, to which the term 
Amphibia [from the Greek amp hi, double, and bios, life] 
has been given. 

21. Birds are, like fishes and reptiles, oviparous verte- 
brata, and, like the true reptiles, they breathe air during 
the whole of their existence ; but they are warm-blooded, 
having a heart with four cavities and a complete double 
circulation, by which all the blood returned from the sys- 
tem is transmitted to the lungs, before being distributed to 
it again. This high amount of oxygenation of the blood 
is accompanied by great activity and energy of all the 
organie functions, acuteness of the senses, and rapid and 
powerful locomotion. The class is further distinguished 
by the position of the body upon two legs only, and by 
the modification of the anterior members for wings ; by the 
covering of the body with feathers, or something analogous 
to them ; by the deficiency of teeth, in place of which the 



41. How are reptiles distinguished in their peculiarities? 

42. Whai of their variety, with examples? 

43. Why has the term Amphibia been applied to this class ? 



VERTEBRATA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 29 

jaws are furnished with a horny covering or bill ; and by 
various other characters of less importance. There is a 
peculiar conformity in the general structure and aspect 
of all the members of this class, with which scarcely any 
other animals are liable to be confounded. Birds have 
been not inappropriately termed the insects of the verte- 
brated classes. 

22. The Mammalia agree with birds in possessing a 
complete double circulation and warm blood ; and with 
reptiles in breathing air, and generally living on the sur- 
face of the earth ; but they differ from all other vertebrata, 
not so much in producing their young alive (which is the 
case in a few species of reptiles and fishes), as in their 
subsequent nourishment of them by suckling — from which 
circumstance the name is derived. This class is placed at 
the head of the animal kingdom, not only as being the one 
to which man belongs, but also because it is that which 
enjoys the most numerous faculties, the most delicate sen- 
sations, the most varied powers of motion; and in which 
all the different faculties seem combined to produce a more 
perfect degree of intelligence ; the one most fertile in re- 
sources, most susceptible of perfection, and least the slave 
of instinct. Although principally adapted to motion on the 
ground, we find one tribe possessed of the power of rising 
into the air like birds, and another formed to inhabit the 
water like fishes ; but both these agree with other Mam- 
malia in all essential characters, and differ very widely 
from the classes with which their habits seem to associate 
them. To the Mammalia is confined the protection of the 
body by hair or fur; the nearest approach to it being in 
the hair-like feathers of a few species of birds. But the 
presence of this covering is by no means universal in the 
Mammalia. 

44. What are the peculiarities of birds ? 



30 ZOOLOGY. 

CLASS I.— MAMMALIA. 

23. The Mammalia are universally regarded as consti- 
tuting the highest group in the animal kingdom ; not only 
from being the one to which man belongs (so far, at least, 
as his bodily structure is concerned), but also as possess- 
ing the most complex organization, adapted to perform the 
greatest number and variety of actions, and to execute 
these with the greatest intelligence. The contrast is here 
extremely strong between the reasoning and the instinc- 
tive powers. When we compare the sagacity of a dog, 
and the great variety of circumstances in which he will 
display an intelligent adaptation of means to ends, with 
the limited operations of the insect, over which the judg- 
ment and will seem to have no control, we cannot help 
being struck with the difference. The one is educable 
[from the Latin e, out ; and duco, to bring, capable of being 
educated, or brought out ; but this term is unauthorized,] 
in the highest degree next to man ; the other could not 
be made to change its habits by the most prolonged course 
of discipline. In ascending the animal scale, we observe 
the instincts gradually becoming subordinated to the 
reasoning powers ; and this may be particularly noticed 
among the members of the class under consideration, which 
exhibit much variety in this respect. 

24. If we regard intelligence as the chief characteristic 
of the Mammalia, we should perhaps rest upon the prin- 
cipal varieties in the degree in which this is possessed 
by the several subordinate groups, as the groundwork of 
our division of the class into orders. But it would be 
difficult to derive from their structure any other indica- 
tions of it, than those which are furnished by the confor- 
mation of the brain ; and as the connection between 
varieties in the structure of this organ, and the relative 
development of particular mental faculties, has not yet 
been established with sufficient clearness and universality, 
the naturalist seeks for other characters, and more parti- 

45. ^hat is remarkable in the Mammalia? 

46. Why do these rank highest in the animal kingdom ? 

47. What illustration is cited of reason and instinct ? 



MAMMALIA CLASSIFICATION. 31 

cularly aims to establish his classification upon such as 
are external and easily recognised. Such a classification 
will be natural, that is, will most nearly associate together 
the animals that have the greatest general resemblance, 
and will most widely separate those which have the least, 
in proportion as the characters which are selected for the 
purpose may be regarded as indicating the general con- 
formation of the several animals. In this respect, the 
structure of the extremities, and the arrangement of the 
teeth, are found to be the most valuable. 

25. From the general structure of the extremities, we 
may learn much of the habits of the animal, and the adap- 
tation of its whole organization to a particular mode of life. 
These, for example, would be at once determined by an 
inspection of the wing of a bat or the flapper of a whale. 
Hence we shall not be far wrong if we throw into distinct 
groups all the Mammalia possessing one or the other of 
these modes of conformation. But among those which 
are adapted to walk upon land, we must seek for some 
slighter differences ; and such we may in the first place 
look for in the organs of touch, since on these will depend 
much of the address of the animal, and a number of dif- 
ferences connected with the amount of its intelligence. 
The degree of perfection of the organs of touch is esti- 
mated by the number and mobility of the fingers, and the 
greater or less extent to which their extremities are en- 
veloped by the nail or hoof. When the fingers are partly 
absent or consolidated together, and a hoof envelopes all 
that portion which touches the ground, it is obvious that 
the sensibility must be blunted, whilst at the same time 
the extremity becomes incapable of prehension or grasping. 
The opposite extreme is, where a thin nail covers only 
one side of the extremity of the finger, leaving the other 
possessed of all its delicacy ; and where several such fingers 
exist, of which one can be opposed to the rest, so as to 
render prehension more perfect, and to perform a great 
variety of actions. 

48. How is the most natural classification made ? 

49. What varieties are named as to the extremities ? 

50. How does structure indicate the power of touch ? 



32 ZOOLOGY. 

26. Another important series of characters is furnished 
by the teeth, which are varied in structure and arrange- 
ment according to the nature of the food ; and it is obvi- 
ous that, as to each kind of food, the means of obtaining it 
must be adapted, certain forms of the extremities and of 
the teeth will be found together. Not only will the cor- 
respondence extend thus far, but to the whole interior 
structure of the animal also. The organs of the senses, 
and the digestive system — the one employed in obtaining 
the food, and the other in assimilating it — will in parti- 
cular exhibit this adaptation ; and thus we should find that 
the structure of the whole animal is so far connected with 
that of its teeth and extremities, that it might be predicted 
from the inspection of them. The extended application 
of this general fact to the determination of the characters 
of the animals whose fossil remains are so abundant in 
many parts of the crust of the earth, is the labour which 
will chiefly render the name of Cuvier immortal. 

27. A primary division of the class Mammalia, how- 
ever, may be founded on a character more important than 
any of the foregoing. As already mentioned, the animals 
of this group are distinguished from most others by pro- 
ducing their young alive — that is, having nearly their 
adult form, and being capable of executing spontaneous 
movements, and, to a greater or less degree, of seeking 
their own nutriment, from the time of birth ; and they 
differ from all others in affording their young a subsequent 
nourishment secreted from their own bodies. But there 
are several amongst them which produce their young in 
a state so immature, having so little of the form of the 
species, and so nearly motionless, that they can be scarcely 
called alive; and it is only after having been for some 
time nourished by suckling, that they attain a degree of 
development corresponding to that at which other young 
mammalia are born. Now, it is a general law that, the 
higher the grade of development a being is ultimately to 
attain, the more it requires to be assisted in the early 
stages of that development by its parent ; and accordingly, 



51. What of the teeth, and how varied ? 



MAMMALIA CLASSIFICATION. 33 

the animals in which the intimate connection between the 
parent and the offspring is separated at the earliest periods, 
are those which attain the lowest permanent condition. 
In this case, the inferiority in the general organization of 
the Mammalia thus produced, to that of the others, is suffi- 
ciently evident to the naturalist ; and it is manifest in their 
low amount of intelligence, as well as in their bodily struc- 
ture, which presents many points of affinity with birds 
and reptiles. We may accordingly divide the class Mam- 
malia into two sub-classes, the truly Viviparous and the 
Ooo-viviparous* Mammalia. The first comprehends by 
far the largest proportion of the whole, and nearly ail the 
best-known animals. The latter contains comparatively 
few. 

28. The truly Viviparous Mammalia may then be sub- 
divided, according to the structure of their extremities, 
into the Ungulated or hoofed, and the U)<Lr<(icidafed, or 
clawed. Hoofed animals are necessarily herbivorous, in- 
asmuch as the conformation of their feet precludes the 
possibility of their seizing a living prey ; and they have 
flat-crowned, grinding teeth for triturating their food. 
These teeth have irregular ridges on their surface, 
occasioned by the slower wearing of their harder por- 
tions ; and by these, aided by the lateral motion of the 
jaws, tough vegetable substances are reduced to a pulp. 
Animals with unguiculated fingers are susceptible of more 
variety ; their food is of different kinds ; but it may at 
once.be known from the form of the grinders, and from 
the degree of mobility and delicacy of the fingers. In 
some, the grinders are formed, like those of the hoofed 
animals, to triturate vegetable substances by elevated 
ridges ; and in these the extremity has the least power of 
varied movement, the habits of the animals assimilating 
to those of the Ungulata. In others, the grinders are very 

* This term is perhaps not altogether scientifically correct, but to 
employ any other would involve explanations unsuiied to the cha- 
racter of this work. 

52. How else are the Mammalia divided ? 

53. Define the narhes of each ? 

54. How are thr> Vivi ul 'divided ? 



ft4 ZOOLOGY. 

narrow, and are formed with sharp points and edges, cut- 
tin ir like the teeth of a saw ; these are adapted for divid- 
ing animal flesh ; and the jaws are fitted together like the 
blades of a pair of scissors, having no action but a vertical 
one. In others, again, the summits of the grinders are 
raised, not into cutting edges, but into conical points ; and 
they are thus adapted for breaking down the hard enve- 
lopes of insects, upon which such animals prey. Finally, 
in mammalia which are adapted to a variety of food, but 
which employ rather the soft and pulpy than the tough 
and stringy parts of plants, the summits of the grinders 
(which are covered entirely with enamel) are raised into 
flattened knobs or tubercles, adapted rather for crushing 
and bruising than for grinding or cutting. This is the 
case in man and most of the monkey tribe. Thus, by the 
form of the grinders, the nature of the food may be at 
once known. 

29. In front of the grinders or molar teeth, we find, in 
all the tribes that subsist entirely or in part on animal 
food, and in some of the vegetable-feeders also, a single 
pointed projecting tooth on each side, which is termed 
canine, from its large size and prominence in the dog. It 
is very large in all the truly carnivorous animals, and it 
enables them to lay a firm hold of their prey. It is also 
larger, however, in some animals which are mostly her- 
bivorous, [from herba, a vegetable, and vorare, to eat; 
Latin,] as the boar ; and in these it seems chiefly intended 
as an organ of offence and defence. Between the canines, 
and occupying the front of the jaws, are the incisors, or 
cutting teeth, the purpose of which is nearly the same in 
all animals which possess them, namely, to divide the 
foo 1 that is to be introduced into the mouth. When they 
are altogether absent, the food is obtained by the tongue. 
In the truly Viviparous Mammalia there are never more 
than six incisors in each jaw. 

8 >. (I.) The variations in the form and arrangement of 
the teeth, taken in conjunction with the differences in the 



55. Describe each of these, with examples. 

56. What of the molar, canine, and incisor teeth ? 



MAMMALIA— CLASSIFICATION. 35 

structure of the extremities, enable us to subdivide the 
Viviparous Mammalia into ten orders. In the first place, 
they may be separated into the Ungui dilated, containing 
eight orders, and the Ungulated, containing two only. Of 
the former group, some have all three kinds of teeth, 
whilst others are deficient in one or more of them. 

31. A. The anguicidafed animals having three sorts 
of teeth, may be divided into the six following orders: — 

i. Bimana. — This contains man only, who is character- 
ized zoologically by the adaptation of his frame to an erect 
posture, supported upon his posterior extremities only, and 
by possessing hands (that is feet with opposable thumbs) 
on the superior extremities only. 

ii. Q,ijadrumana. — This order includes the apes, mon- 
keys, &c, which have hands on alt four extremities. 

in. Cheiroptera. — In this order, known as the bat 
tribe, the anterior extremities are formed into wing-like 
organs, which enable the animals to rise into the air like 
birds. 

iv. Insectivora. — The animals of this tribe, which in- 
cludes the hedgehog, mole, &c, have the peculiar adap- 
tation of their teeth to insect food, just now described. 

v. Carnivora. — In this very extensive group, of which 
the cat tribe may be taken as an illustration, the teeth 
manifest, in the most remarkable manner, the adaptation 
to devour animal flesh. 

vi. Cetacea. — This order, properly restricted to those 
members of the whale tribe which feed on animal sub- 
stances, follows very naturally on the aquatic forms of the 
Carnivora ; since its digestive system exhibits the same 
general character, although the adaptation of the extremi- 
ties for swimming prevents them from showing the same 
form. 

h2. The two other orders of Unguiculated Mammalia 
are adapted partly to vegetable, and partly to animal food. 
They are — 

vn. Rodentia. — In these, the toes differ but little from 



57. Into how many orders are the unguiculated divided ? 

58. Name them, and their varieties. 



30 ZOOLOGY. 

those of the Carnivora ; but the jaws are deficient in true 
incisors, their place being supplied by the canines, which 
are brought very much forward (so that a wide interval 
exists between them and the molars), and are adapted to 
gnawing. This order includes the beaver, rat, hare, &c. 

viii. Edentata. — This order is so named from the ab- 
sence of front teeth, sometimes also of canines, and even 
of molars. The extremities of their toes are nearly in- 
cluded in large nails, which approach in character to 
hoofs. To this order belong the sloth, ant-eater, arma- 
dillo, &c. 

83. B. The Ungulated Mammalia form two orders 
only — those which ruminate (or chew the cud), and those 
which do not. The latter differ much amongst each 
other, but are associated into one order : — 

ix. Pachydermata. — In some of these the toes are 
still partly separated, in others they are entirely united. 
The food is mostly vegetable ; all three kinds of teeth are 
sometimes present ; in some the canines, and in others the 
incisors, are deficient. Besides the elephant, horse, hog, 
&c, this order properly includes certain aquatic forms, 
which have been commonly associated with the Cetacea, 
but which are strictly herbivorous, and approach very 
nearly to the hippopotamus. 

x. Ruminantia. — This order, containing the ox, sheep, 
deer, &c, is a very distinct one, and is characterized by 
its cloven feet, the absence of incisors in the upper jaw, 
and the complex arrangement of the stomach, by which 
rumination is effected. 

34. (II.) The sub-class Ovo-vivipara is easily divided 
into two orders — the one having a pouch, or marsupium, in 
which the young are received and nourished for some 
time after their birth, and the other being destitute of it. 

xi. Marsupiata. — The animals of this order, which 
includes the opossum, kangaroo, &c, differ considerably 
amongst each other in their food and habits ; and the 
arrangement of their teeth, or their dentition, varies ac- 

59. What of the Rodentia and Edentata ? 

60. What are the orders of the ungulated ? 

61 What is the first orrl.-r of the ovo- viviparous group I 



MAMMALIA CLASSIFICATION. 37 

cordingly. They have mostly three kinds of teeth, the 
incisors nioiv than six in number, and their feet are un- 
guiculated, with an opposable thumb, in some instances, 
on the hind foot. 

xn. Monotremata. — This is unquestionably the group 
which approaches most nearly to oviparous animals. It 
contains only two genera, in one of which the teeth are 
altogether absent; and in the other nearly so, the jaws 
beinor covered with a horny bill. In addition to five claws 
on each foot, the males have a peculiar spur on the hind 
ones, like that of a cock. 

;*5. The foregoing arrangement, founded entirely on 
external characters, does not give an altogether accurate 
representation of the relative intelligence of the different 
orders If this be taken as the guide, we should first 
arrange the Viviparous Mammalia into a Zoophagoas (or 
animal-feeding) and a Phytophagous (or vegetable feeding) 
series, of which the former will rank highest on the whoie, 
although the highest of the latter may surpass its lowest 
forms. 

86. The Zoophagous subdivision will include the 

BlMANA, &UADRUMANA, CaRNIVORA, InSECTIVORA, ChEIROP- 

tkr\, and Cetacea. 

1)7. To the Phytophagous belong the Pachydermata, 
Ruminantia, Rodentia, and Edentata. 

88. These last approach most nearly of the Vicipara 
to birds in the structure of their brains ; but a still lower 
type is exhibited by the Ovo-rivipara, which are un- 
questionably the lowest of the Mammalia in point of 
intelligence. 

Order I. — Bimana. [From the Latin bis, twice, and ?na?ius, 
hand ; two-handed.'] 

39. If we regard the possession of intelligence as the 
peculiar characteristic of the class Mammalia, we can have 
no hesitation in selecting the order Bimana, to which Man 

62. Name some examples. 

63. What jf the Monotremata? 

64. How are the Mammalia divided farther? 
£fS What of the order Bimana ? 

4 



38 ZOOLOGY. 

alone belongs, as the type of the group, being the form 
most unlike that of any other groups on which this class 
borders. It has been already pointed out, that there is an 
important connection between the high development of the 
bodily structure and of the intelligent powers of this class, 
and that peculiarity which distinguishes it from all others, 
namely, the prolongation of the period during which the 
young is dependent on its parent for support. And this 
prolongation is greater in the human species, in propor- 
tion to the whole length of life, than in any other ; and it 
has evidently a direct connection with the ultimate high 
development of the mind and body of the offspring, and 
also (as will be presently pointed out) a most important 
indirect influence on the social condition of the human 
race. Thus man, presenting in the highest degree the 
characters which have been stated as distinctive of the 
Mammalia, is rightly placed at the head of the class, al- 
though, as will presently appear, he is surpassed by many 
other animals in particular portions of the bodily organi- 
zation. 

40. The order Bimana includes but the single genus 
Homo, [being the Latin word for man ;] and there is 
strong reason to believe, on scientific grounds alone, that 
all the races of men originally sprung from a common 
stock, although many of them present more striking differ- 
ences from each other than would constitute distinct 
species in other races. But this is no more than is noticed 
in the breeds of animals domesticated by him: and it may 
be observed, that the capability of domestication essentially 
consists in the susceptibility on the part not only of the 
habits but also of the structure of the animal, to conform 
to a variety of circumstances. This susceptibility exists 
in a higher degree in man than in any other animal, the 
dog approaching most nearly to him ; and we should ac- 
cordingly expect to find considerable variations among the 
races which have been subjected for long periods to differ- 
ent external conditions. But these differences, even when 



66. Is there more than one genus in this order ? 

67. How are their differences to be regarded ? 



ORDER BIMANA MAN. 39 

we compare the most dissimilar forms — as the lowest 
Negro and the highest European — are as nothing, when 
we contrast man with the animals which approach most 
nearly to him, and from which, in the opinion of some, he 
has had his origin. Some q( the most important of these 
differences will be now noticed. 

41. Man is the only mammiferous animal to which the 
erect position is natural, and in which there is an essential 
difference in the organization and function of the two pairs 
of extremities. In those of the monkey tribe, whose form 
approaches most nearly to his, the erect posture is not 
natural but constrained ; and none of these agile move- 
ments, so peculiar to the group, can be exhibited, unless 
the body is supported in front as well as behind. All the 
extremities of these animals are alike formed as organs of 
prehension ; in the Carnivora, all are alike organs of pre- 
hension and support ; in the hoofed animals, ail are organs 
of support alone ; in man, the anterior or upper extremi- 
ties are entirely for prehension, and the posterior or lower 
entirely for support. When we examine these more par- 
ticularly, we observe that each pair is adapted to its 
respective use in a higher degree than the extremities of 
the monkey or any other animal. The foot of man is 
broad, and its surface expanded ; and the leg bears verti- 
cally upon it, the heel resting upon the ground. In the 
monkeys it is a sort of oblique continuation of the leg, 
as the hand of the arm, and supports the body chiefly 
by its powers of prehension. The whole structure 
of the body is adapted to being exclusively supported by 
the feet. The legs are so long, that a man could not, if 
he wished it, walk on all-fours ; his short and nearly in- 
flexible foot, and his long thigh, would bring his knee to the 
ground ; whilst his widely-separated arms, and his shoul- 
ders, which are but loosely attached to the trunk, would 
ill support the fore part of his body. 

42. But by the adaptation of his whole frame to the 
erect posture, his upper extremities are left at entire lib- 



68. Wherein does man essentially differ from all other animals ? 

69. What proves that man was made for the erect position ? 



40 ZOOLOGY. 

erty, whilst his organs of sense are most favourably situ- 
ated for observation. The hand of man is adapted to a far 
grvater variety of purposes than that of the monkeys, in which 
it is most perfect. Its power consists chiefly in the size 
and strength of the thumb, which can have its tip brought 
into opposition with that of any of the fingers; and all 
these are capable of being moved separately. In none of 
the monkeys can the thumb be opposed to the fingers 
with any degree of force, and in many their tips cannot 
be brought into contact ; so that, though admirably adapted 
for clinging round bodies of a certain size, such as the 
small branches of trees, their hands can neither seize very 
minute objects nor support large ones. To the hand of 
man some have attributed his superiority, but it may be 
safely said that he owes this to his mind and its instru- 
ments conjointly. The hand would be useless without 
the mind to direct it ; and mankind, if [landless, would 
soon be reduced to a very subordinate kind of existence, if 
not speedily extinguished altogether. 

43. Man, possessed of so remarkable a means of execut- 
ing that which his mental ingenuity devises, is less pro- 
vided, in regard both to acuteness of sensibility and to 
muscular power, than many other mammalia. His swift- 
ness in running is inferior to that of other animals of his size. 
The smallness of his face, compared with that of the cranium, 
shows that the portion of the nervous system connected 
with the external senses is less developed in him than in 
most other animals. Accordingly, he is surpassed by 
many in the acuteness of his sensibility to light, sound, 
<kc. But he stands alone in the power of comparing his 
sensations and drawing conclusions from them. More- 
over, although none of his senses are very acute in his 
natural state, they are all moderately so, which is not the 
case in other animals ; and they are capable (as is also 
his swiftness of foot) of being much improved by practice, 
especially when circumstances strongly call for their ex- 
ercise. 



70. What of the structure of the hand? 

71. How else is he distinguished i 



ORDER BIMANA MAN. 41 

41. This im provability is one of the most remarkable 
characteristics of the bodily as well as the mental constitu- 
tion of man. It is to a gradual advance in both, that the civil- 
ized races now enjoy so much of comfort, and of means of 
still further elevation. In the processes by which these are 
attained, we observe a remarkable difference between the 
character of man and that of other animals. The arts of 
which these are capable are limited and peculiar to each 
species ; and there seems to be no evidence of a power of 
invention, or of construction for any purpose, beyond that 
to which the original and instinctive powers are adapted. 
Hence it would appear that there is no proof of any species 
or race among the lower animals ever making an advance 
towards an improvement or an alteration in its condition ; 
and where a particular adaptation of means to ends, of 
actions to circumstances, is made by an individual (as is 
often the case where some amount of intelligence or ration- 
ality exists), the rest do not seem to profit by it. 

45. Man is as much distinguished, then, from the lower 
animals, by his mental as by his corporeal endowments. 
Yet they are not of a kind altogether different from that 
which we may elsewhere see. In common with the inferior 
tribes, he possesses strong instinctive propensities, which 
are kept under control, however, in a well-balanced mind. 
But when the reasoning powers are undeveloped, as in 
early childhood and idiocy, the exclusive sway of the 
instincts is obvious. The more violent passions and emo- 
tions are nearly akin to these ; and whilst they give great 
activity to the operations of the mind, it is requisite that 
tiiey should be duly restrained by the intellect and will. 
This power of internal regulation is one of the most strik- 
ing characteristics of the human mind above that of ani- 
mals, which possess like it reasoning faculties, often to no 
mean extent, and are actuated by emotions and moral feel- 
ings. One of the most important aids to the use and 
development of the human mind, is the power of producing 
articulate sounds, or language ; of which, as far as we 



72. To what characteristic of man is his superiority owing? 

73. Is this in his bodily or mental constitution, or both ? 

4* 



42 ZOOLOGY. 

know, man is the only animal in possession. There is no 
doubt that many other species have certain powers of 
communication amongst individuals ; but these are proba- 
bly very limited, and of a kind very different from a ver- 
bal language. 

46. The more we study the physical and mental con- 
stitution of man, the more are we led to the belief, that it 
is in the adaptation of the whole to a great variety of cir- 
cumstances that its great perfection consists. There seems 
scarcely any condition in which he cannot support himself. 
He is capable of sustaining the lowest as well as the 
highest extremes of temperature. His diet is naturally of 
a mixed kind ; but he can support himself in health and 
strength on either animal or vegetable food exclusively. 
At the same time, it is by the demands which his peculiar 
condition makes upon the exercise of his ingenuity, that 
his mental powers are first called into active operation ; 
and, when once aroused, their development has no assign- 
able limit. On a cursory glance at the condition of the in- 
habitants of different parts of the earth, it will almost always 
appear that, where food and shelter is the most easily 
obtained, civilization is the least advanced. Frequently, 
as in -many eastern nations, a certain progress is early 
made, and the race then remains stationary for centuries. 

47. The slow development of those intellectual powers 
and corporeal faculties which are necessary for the mere 
maintenance of individual existence, renders the human 
infant long dependent upon its parent for support and 
guidance. The nearly equal number of individuals of the 
two sexes renders their association in single pairs natural; 
and as the father is led by the affection implanted in his 
heart to participate in the support and education of his 
offspring, the length of time required for that education 
allows the birth of others, whence the natural perpetuity of 
the conjugal state. In many other animals which pair, 
the male and female separate after each brood has become 
independent of parental care, and before the production of 



74. Describe resemblances and differences, relatively to other ani- 
mals. 



ORDER BIMANA MAN. 43 

another. From the long period of infantile weakness 
result domestic subordination and the social affections, 
and, consequently, the order of society at large. The 
disposition to mutual assistance multiplies to an almost 
unlimited extent the advantages previously derived by 
man from his intelligence; and for giving effect to this, 
language is one of the most important instruments. 

48. The striking differences in colour, in the form of 
the head and other parts of the body, and in degree of 
intelligence, amongst the different races of men, has caused 
some naturalists to regard them as constituting distinct 
species, that is, as being descended from original stocks 
having corresponding differences from each other. But 
this notion does not appear reconcilable with the fact, 
that in each race there not unfrequently exist subdivisions 
of which the characters approximate more closely to those 
of other races than is ever seen among distinct species. 
For example, although a characteristic specimen of the 
Negro race is extremely different from a well-formed 
European, a series of nations might be traced in Africa, 
whose common origin can scarcely be questioned, and 
which yet lose one Negro peculiarity after another, until a 
very close approach is manifest to the character of the 
white races. 

49. Again, it is to be remarked, that the differences 
among the races of men are such as are observed in other 
animals to result from the influence of external causes, or 
to have a spontaneous origin ; whilst in those points which 
most completely separate him from the species most nearly 
allied, there is a thorough conformity. This is especially 
the case in regard to his mental endowments ; for similar 
natural prejudices and impressions, the same feelings, sym- 
pathies, and propensities, and intellectual faculties corre- 
sponding in kind if not in degree, may be traced in all of 
them. 

50. Nevertheless, the different races peopling the earth 
may be associated into groups, from their greater or less 



75. Whence the natural perpetuity of the conjugal state ? 

76. What proves that all varieties of men belong to one race ? 



44 ZOOLOGY. 

resemblance to each other ; these groups having probably 
been distinct from a very early period, and their members 
usually having affinities in language as well as in 
hysical confirmation. Five of such groups are usually 
described. 

51. The first occupies Europe and the south-western 
part of Asia, and may be geographically divided from the 
second by a line passing eastwards from the Euxine 
through the Caspian, then following the direction of the 
Himalaya mountain range, and descending to the Gulf 
of Bengal. The two great regions thus separated have 
been from the earliest periods the abode of two great 
classes of human races, differing from each other in man- 
ners and social character, as remarkably as the arid and 
saline plains of Mongolia and the cold desert of Gobi differ 
from the warm and fertile countries of Southern Asia. 

52. To the western group (commonly termed Cau- 
casian) the name of Iranian is applied by Dr. Prichard, 
the highest living authority on this subject. The nations 
composing it people India, Persia, and Arabia, the north 
of Africa, and nearly the whole of Europe. In the in- 
habitants of this space, a similar configuration of body 
may, with few exceptions, be recognised. Of this, the 
ancient Greeks seem to afford the most perfect model. It 
is principally remarkable for the roundness of the cranium 
and the oval form of the face ; and for the small proportion 
which the latter bears to the former, the upper and ante- 
rior parts of the brain being chiefly developed. The 
muzzle does not project, the front teeth of both jaws being 
perpendicular ; the lips are gently turned out, the chin 
full and rounded. Complexion does not enter into the 
characters of this group ; since it is of all shades, from the 
white and florid colour of the northern Europeans, to the 
jet black of many tribes in Lybia. In these Indo-Atlantic 
nations, we find the greatest energy of the intellectual 
powers and moral feelings, and the greatest susceptibility 
of improvement by culture. They certainly, therefore, 
rank highest in the human family. It seems probable 



77. Into how many groups have men been divided ? 



ORDER BIMANA — MAX. 45 

that the region of Upper Asia, termed Iran, was the 
primitive seat of those families of nations who have most 
extensively spread the same type of features. 

53. The nations inhabiting the northern and eastern 
parts of Asia, with the Finnish nations of Northern Europe, 
and the Esquimaux of North America, evidently belong 
to a different group, (commonly called the Mongolian,) to 
which Dr. Prichard gives the appellation Turanian. 
These are particularly characterized by the form of the 
skull and face, which seem as if they had been flattened 
in front ; so that the features run together. The cheek- 
bones project very far sideways ; the nose is small and 
flat ; lips rather thick ; the chin less projecting. The 
characteristic complexion of this group is olive ; the eyes 
are usually black ; and the hair black, straight, and strong, 
but thin. The forehead is low and flat. Their stature 
is generally lower than that of Europeans ; and, with 
greater acuteness of the senses, they exhibit less intellec- 
tual power. 

54. The general characters of the Negro races inhabit- 
ing the tropical parts of Africa, are sufficiently well 
known. Their complexion and eyes are dark, approach- 
ing more or less closely to black; the hair black and 
woolly. The skull looks as if it had been compressed 
laterally, so as to cause the face and back-head to project. 
The forehead is low, narrow, and slanting ; the jaws 
narrow and projecting ; the upper front teeth oblique, and 
the chin receding. The nose is broad and flat ; the lips, 
especially the upper one, thick. It cannot be denied that 
in these characters the Negro head is intermediate be- 
tween that of the European and that of the monkey ; but 
it far more nearly resembles the former than the latter. 
It is a very important fact, also, that it is only in the 
most degraded African races that we meet with the 
whole assemblage of characters regarded as distinguishing 
the Negro ; and that in others we find so strong a ten- 
dency towards a higher character, that it would be difficult 



78. Describe the Caucasian variety, and their locality. 

79. What of the Mongolian ? 



46 ZOOLOGY. 

to distinguish many individuals among them from indivi- 
duals that might be selected from the Iranian race. The 
influence of climate, and other external circumstances, on 
the physical and mental development of the human body, 
is nowhere more evident than when the degraded nations 
of the Guinea coast are contrasted with the intelligent 
Kaffres of the south or the civilized Ashantees to the 
north. There can be little doubt, then, that no decided 
line separates the African from the European races ; and 
that the former may, in process of time, be brought up to 
the same intellectual and moral standard with the latter. 

55. According to Dr. Prichard, the Hottentots and 
Bushmen inhabiting the south of Africa must be regarded 
as constituting a distinct group, in which human nature 
is exhibited in its most degraded form. There is a re- 
markable admixture in their physiognomy, of the charac- 
ters of the Negro and Turanian races. The face is ex- 
tremely flat ; the nose has scarcely any perceptible ridge, 
and its extremity is greatly widened. The eyes are 
placed very obliquely, as in the Chinese. The chin is 
prominent, but very narrow. The* complexion is like 
that of a Negro, diluted with yellow. The hair grows in 
separate tufts, which spontaneously twist together. In 
their language, the Hottentots seem to have no affinity 
with the other nations of South Africa which had a Negro 
origin ; and they live in a more destitute and miserable 
condition than any other inhabitants of this continent. 

56. The aboriginal nations of America, excluding the 
Esquimaux and some other tribes, form a well-marked 
division of the human family, bearing a strong general 
resemblance to each other in their most remarkable cha- 
racters, both physical and moral. As in the Iranian 
division, the complexion varies extremely ; but in general 
a reddish or copper hue prevails. The form of the 
head more resembles that of the Turanian group than 
any other. 

57. The Indian and Polynesian archipelagoes are in- 



80. How are the Negro race characterized ? 

81. What of the Hottentots and Bushmen ? 



QFA.DRUMANA. 47 

habited by a great variety of nations, which have probably 
had mixed origins, and which it is difficult, therefore, to 
refer to any single group. Two races, however, appear 
to be decidedly distinct from the rest. One of these con- 
sists of the genuine Papuas, or woolly-haired inhabitants 
of the interior of New Guinea and the adjacent large 
islands. These bear a strong resemblance to the people 
of Madagascar. Their hair is less woolly, is longer, and 
thicker than that of the Negroes, but is very different from 
the lank hair of the Malays and other races. The other, 
that of the Alfourous, appears to have constituted the 
primitive population of the eastern archipelago, but is now 
nearly confined to the interior of Australia. The hair is 
not woolly, but hard, black, and thick. The countenance 
is flattened, and the nose so wide that the nostrils are 
almost transversely placed. The lips are thick, the mouth 
wide, and the teeth projecting. The colour of the skin 
is of a smoky black, never very deep. The stature is 
usually below the mean ; and the limbs seem of dispro- 
portioned length. Their physical and mental develop- 
ment seem altogether extremely low. 

Order II. — Quadrumana, [from the Latin, quafuor, four, and manus, 
hand ; four-handed.] 

58. The order Quadrumana, which takes its name, as 
already stated, from the peculiar conformation of the ex- 
tremities of the animals composing it — all four of them 
having one of the toes opposed to the rest, like the thumb 
of man to his fingers — are remarkable for their facility in 
climbing, which they gain by the grasping power con- 
ferred upon them by the possession of four hands. Their 
anatomical structure refutes the common idea, that the 
upright position is natural to them ; and it is certain that, 
though they may be taught in a state of captivity to walk 
erect like men, they usually support themselves by their 
anterior as well as their posterior limbs. It may be ob- 
served, that those species which approach the nearest to 



82 What of the aborigines of America. &c. * 

83. Where are varieties of men found, and how classified ? 



48 ZOOLOGY. 

man rest upon the outer side of the foot only, and not upon 
its sole, when imitating his position ; and that they are 
very insecure in it. And to those which are intermediate 
between the higher Quad rumana and the succeeding orders, 
the maintenance of the erect position without support for 
any length of time is impossible. It might be supposed that 
the possession of " four hands" is a character which raises 
the animals possessing it above two-handed man ; but a 
little reflection will show that this is not the case, since 
the hand even of the highest duadrumana is very inferior 
to that of man in complexity of structure and in the 
variety of movement to which it is adapted, whilst that of 
the lower shows but a slight advance upon the foot of the 
Carnivora. A corresponding series of gradations may be 
traced in the aspect of the face ; for whilst, at one end of 
the series, the muzzle (at least in the young animal) is 
not much more prominent than it is in some races of man, 
at the other it nearly resembles that of other Mammalia. 
Nevertheless, throughout the order, a certain degree of 
resemblance to man may be perceived, in the gestures as 
well as in the general aspect of these animals. All of 
them, like man and the Carnivora, possess three sorts of 
teeth ; the canines in the full-grown animal, are much 
more developed than in man ; and there are intervals 
between them and the other teeth, which are not present 
in his jaws, but exist in all other Mammalia. 

59. The Q,uadrumana may be divided into three fami- 
lies — the Simiad,e, or Monkeys of the Old World; the 
Cebidje, or American Monkeys ; and the Lemurid^:, or 
Lemur tribe, which supply the place of monkeys in 
Madagascar and some parts of Africa and India. This 
restriction of distinct types of structure to different portions 
of the surface of the globe, is not a little remarkable ; and 
it may be traced even in the subordinate divisions. 

00. The Simiadae include all the animals of the Old 
World known as apes, monkuys, and baboons — names 



84. What of the order Quadrumana? 

&5. How do they compare with the Biinana? 

ob. Into how many families are ihey divided? 



ClUADRUMANA THE CHIMPANSEE, &C 49 

which are commonly bestowed according to the develop- 
ment of the tail, the apes having none, the monkeys 
having a long one, and the baboons a short one. *AU 
these have ten molar teeth only in each jaw ; and they 
have the partition between the nostrils very slender, so 
that the apertures are close to one another, as in man. 
On the other hand, all the Cebid^e are possessed of a tail, 
which is an extremely important organ to them, having 
great prehensile powers ; they have twelve molar teeth in 
each jaw ; and the partition between the nostrils is thick, 
so that the apertures are wide apart, as in the lower ani- 
mals. The thumb of the hand, or fore foot, is not opposa- 
ble ; and it is entirely wanting in some of the genera. 
The Lemurid,e are distinguished from the monkeys, 
partly by the greater prolongation of the muzzle, the 
possession of a large bushy tail (which is not, however, 
prehensile [from the Latin, prehendere, to lay hold of]) 
of opposable thumbs on all the feet, and of a crooked and 
pointed claw on the first hind finger. In their teeth, they 
present an approach to the type of the Insectivora. 

61. (i.) The Simiad.e must be regarded as the types of 
the Quadrumanous order ; and amongst these the Jlpes 
manifest, in the most striking manner, the peculiar cha- 
racters of the group. These are distinguished from the 
other subdivisions, in part by the absence of a tail, but 
also by the want of the cheek-pouches and of the callosi- 
ties, or hard spots on their haunches, destitute of hair, 
which the monkeys and baboons possess ; and further, by 
the predominance in length of the fore feet or arms over 
the hinder ones. The most remarkable species of this 
group are the chimpansee and orang-outang; [from the 
Malay, orang, man ; and on tang, wild ; wild man,] the 
former a native oi equinoctial Africa, and the latter of the 
peninsulas and islands j)f Eastern Asia. Contrary to the 
general opinion, it is in the first of these that the greatest 
number of points of resemblance to man are to be found. 



87. What variety in the Simiadae ? 

88. What of the Cebidaj ? 

89. Describe the LemuridaB. 

5 



50 ZOOLOGY. 

Both these animals attain considerable size when full 
grown ; probably in their native climate the former rising 
to frVe feet, and the latter to seven ; but no living speci- 
mens of those sizes have ever been seen in this country. 
In both, there is a remarkable difference between the 
young and the adult form of the skull — the young bear- 
ing the greatest resemblance to that of man, whilst in the 
adult, the muzzle is so much prolonged, and the canine 
teeth are so much developed, as to give the face much 
more the aspect of that of the baboon. This difference, 
together with a ehange in the colour of the hair, has 
caused specimens of the orang, at different ages, to be 
accounted distinct species. The character of the animal 
also changes, being mild and gentle when young, but 
having a good deal of baboon-like ferocity when come to 
its full development. In the Gihbons, or long-armed apes, 
the length of the anterior members is so great that they 
touch the ground when the animal is in a semi-erect atti- 
tude ; these present an approach to the monkeys, in the 
possession of callosities on the buttocks by some of the 
species. 

62. The Monkeys of the Old World are distinguished 
(in addition to the characters which separate them from 
the Cebidse) by the possession of cheek-pouches, callosi- 
ties, and a tail, which separate them from the apes ; the 
tail is longer than in the baboons, the muzzle less protuber- 
ant, and the aspect less ferocious. The group contains, 
however, some species which present an approach to the 
apes, and others which form a transition to the baboons. 
The true Monkeys are also remarkable for the shortness 
of the arms in proportion to the legs, which causes some 
species to walk on all-fours with difficulty, climbing being 
their usual mode of locomotion ; but, by common ob- 
servers, they are still more noticed for the beauty of their 
colouring, their activity of movement, and gentleness of 
demeanour. Their character is much changed, however, 
by confinement. They are found in almost all the tropi. 



90. What is the most remarkable species of the apes? 

91. Describe these, and their varieties. 



QUADRUMANA THE BABOONS. 51 

cal countries of the Old World, and particular genera 
have a peculiar local distribution. Many of them live in 
societies, chiefly inhabiting the woods, but committing 
great devastations on any cultivated ground in the neigh- 
bourhood. In several species the aspect of the head is 
extremely grotesque, as are also the attitudes of the ani- 
mal. The number of species is altogether considerable. 
Their food seems to be rather vegetable than animal ; and 
in one genus this is distinctly indicated by the structure 
of the teeth and of the stomach. One genus, restricted 
to Africa, is destitute of thumbs on the anterior extremi- 
ties, and the deficiency is partly supplied by the great 
development of the tail, which is not, however, prehen- 
sile, as in the American monkeys. 

63. The Baboons have usually a short tail, or none at 
all ; but there is much variation in this respect. They 
are rather distinguished from the apes and monkeys by 
the protuberance of the muzzle, and the ferocity of aspect 
which is partly dependent upon this ; the canine teeth are 
generally large and strong. The Baboons have also a 
large bag connected with the organ of voice, by the 
resonance of which the power of their loud and discord- 
ant cries is greatly increased. The animal commonly 
termed the Barbary ape is in reality a baboon, but, in the 
almost total deficiency of tail, it bears a superficial resem- 
blance to the former group. A race of these animals in- 
habits the Rock of Gibraltar, where they manage to 
obtain a scanty subsistence. This is the only instance of 
the existence of Quadrumana in a wild state within the 
boundaries of Europe, and it is not improbable that these 
were introduced at some former period from the north of 
Africa. The mandril is the largest of the Baboons, and 
of the Quadrumana in general, with the exception of the 
chimpansee and orang. It is a ferocious-looking animal, 
and is distinguished from other baboons by the bright red 
colour of its cheeks ; it is dangerous for its size, strength, 
and uncertain temper, so as even to become a terror to the 



92. How else are monkeys distinguished ? 
H3. Describe the Baboons. 



52 ZOOLOGY. 

Negroes of Guinea, of the woods of which part of Africa 
it is an inhabitant. The group of Baboons is almost con- 
fined to Africa and Western Asia. " Hideous as the 
animals contained in it appear, and disgusting to those 
who have only seen them in captivity, their adaptation to 
a peculiar mode of life is of course as exquisite as that 
of any other animal, and requires only to be understood 
to command an amount of admiration, which must lessen 
to a considerable extent the abhorrence with which we are 
apt to regard them. It has lately been discovered (by Dr. 
A. Smith, the traveller in Southern Africa) that they chiefly 
inhabit barren, stony places, where they subsist, for the 
most part, upon scorpions, to procure which they employ 
their hands to lift up the numerous loose stones, under 
which one or more of these creatures commonly lie con- 
cealed ; their stings they extract with dexterity. Accord- 
ingly, we find that the Baboons are expressly modified for 
traversing the ground on all-fours, and are furnished with 
efficient hands ; their eyes are peculiarly placed, being 
directed downwards along the visage.'' In a state of cap- 
tivity, the Baboons exhibit less docility than any others of 
the order. They are by no means devoid of intelligence ; 
but they do not seem capable of being steadily attached 
by kindness, and generally exhibit an alternation of moody 
sullenness and violent outbreaks of passion. Their re- 
sentment of injuries is often manifested for a long time 
afterwards. 

64. (n.) The Monkeys of the New World, composing 
the family Cebid^e, differ from those of the Old, not only 
in the number of their grinders and the disposition of the 
nostrils, already mentioned, but in the entire absence of 
the cheek-pouches and callosities, and also in the conspi- 
cuous character, and the importance as a member, of the 
tail, which is usually prehensile in these monkeys, and 
capable of being twisted round branches so firmly as en- 
tirely to support the animal. In general, the thumbs of 
the anterior members are not opposable ; and they are 
sometimes scarcely developed at all. The Cebidae are 

94. What of the mandril ? 



QUADRUMANA THE BABOONS. 



53 



generally of smaller size than the Simiadae, none of them 
attaining nearly the dimensions of the chimpansee, orang, 
or mandril ; they are also less malicious, more easily 
tamed, and susceptible of a more constant attachment ; 
but they seem to possess less intelligence. They are 
found in very large numbers in the woods of South 
America, where they chiefly subsist on vegetable food, 
to which their teeth show a peculiar adaptation. The 
largest of them are the Mycefi, or howling-monkeys, 
which derive their tremendous powers of voice from a sort 
of hollow drum connected with the larynx, [or or^an of 
voice found at the top of the windpipe,] (somewhat resem- 
bling that of the baboons,) which is peculiar to them 




Spider-Monkey. 

nmongst the Cebidas. They are shaggy animals, about 
the size of a fox. The Ateles, or spider-monkeys, are re- 

95. Describe the monkeys of the New World. 
bu. What are the largest called, and why? 

5* 



51 ZOOLOGY. 

markable for the length and prehensile power of their 
tails, and for the absence (in some species entire, in others 
nearly complete) of the thumb ; whence they are called 
four-fingered monkeys. A large number of other genera, 
including many species, might be enumerated ; some of 
these are remarkable for their nocturnal habits, and others 
for their carnivorous propensities. A remarkable connect- 
ing link, by which this group is connected with the 
Simiadae, is afforded by the genus Ouistitis, which in- 
cludes the animals known as marmosets and tamarins. 
Like the American monkeys in general, they have the 
nostrils lateral, and the haunches covered with hair, and 
are destitute of cheek-pouches ; but they have only ten 
grinders in each jaw, like those of the old continent. All 
their nails, except those of the hinder thumbs, are com- 
pressed and pointed, so as to assume the appearance of 
claws; and even the thumbs, though furnished with flat 
nails, are yet so slightly separated from the other toes, that 
they can scarcely be called " four-handed" animals. The 
lower jaw possesses large cutting teeth, resembling those 
of the Rodentia [from the Latin rodere, to gnaw] — an 
order to which this group presents several points of re- 
semblance. They are all diminutive animals, of pleasing 
forms, and very active movements ; some of them are 
rather irritable in temper, and present an appearance 
which is really formidable, notwithstanding their size. 
There is another genus, Pitheciu, which may be regarded 
as representing the baboons of the Old World among the 
Cebidai ; the tail bring short, the head large, and the 
canine teeth much developed. Many of the species are 
strong, stout, and fierce; having a hoarse and hollow 
voice, and a malicious aspect. Some of them are nocturnal 
in their habits, and feed upon small Mammalia and birds, 
which they steal with great caution and noiselessness; 
such are distinguished by their large and prominent eyes. 
05. (in.) The third family of Quadrumana, that of 



97. Describe the spider-monkey. 

98. What oi her genus is named ? 

99. Name (heir peculiarities. 



QUADRUMANA THE LEMURS. 55 

Lemurid^e, has in many respects the general aspect of the 
American monkeys; but the muzzle is much prolonged, 
resembling that of insectivorous or carnivorous animals ; 
the teeth, also, are modified for animal food, presenting 
sharp tubercles, locking into each other; and the grinding 
motion of the lower jaw is reduced, so that its action pos- 
sesses more of the scissors-like character of that of the 
animal-feeders. The four thumbs of these animals are 
well developed and opposable ; the claw-like aspect of the 
nail of the first hind finger has been already noticed as 
one of the most easily recognised characters of the family. 
The canines in the lower jaw have the character of addi- 
tional incisors ; and the first molars resemble the ordinary 
canines. The total number of teeth in each jaw is eighteen, 
as in the American monkeys. The true Lemurs are dis- 
tinguished by their very large and handsome tails, which 
are elevated when the animals are in motion, and not 
trailed after them. They average the size of a large cat, 
but have longer limbs. They are nocturnal or twilight 
animals, passing the day in sleep, rolled up in the form 
of a ball; at night they rouse themselves, and spring with 
the greatest activity in search of their food, which princi- 
pally consists of fruits. These are entirely confined to Ma- 
dagascar, where at least thirteen species are known to exist, 
differing from each other but little except in colour. On 
the other hand, the Galag)s, which are found in the 
neighbourhood of the river Senegal, are pre-eminently 
insectivorous. With this group may be associated a very 
remarkable animal, which bears a strong resemblance to 
the sloth — the stenops tardigradns, or slow-paced lori, an 
inhabitant of India and the eastern archipelago. It has 
the teeth of the Lemuridas, the short muzzle of a mastiff, 
a slender body, no tail, and large approximating eyes, as 
in the Lemurs. It subsists on insects, occasionally on 
small birds and quadrupeds. During the day it sleeps, 
clinging to a branch, with the body drawn together ; at 
night it prowls among the forest boughs in quest of food ; 
its sight is then excessively acute, and it steals noiselessly 

100. What of the Lemurs, and their variety ? 



56 



ZOOLOGY. 



on its victim. Its grasp is remarkably tenacious ; and it 
has been found that the trunks of the arteries of the limbs 
subdivide, as in the true Sloths, into a network of branches, 
the object of which seems to be to retard the blcod in its 
passage amongst the muscles. 

66. In this group are to be placed two remarkable ani- 
mals, which, from their strong resemblance to other 
orders, were associated with them by Cuvier and other 
naturalists. The first of these is the galaeopithecus, or 
flying-lemur, which, from its strong resemblance to the 




Galaeopithecus, or Flying-Lemur. 

bats, has been arranged with the Cheiroptera. It is, how- 
ever, a lemur in all its essential characters, but it has its 
limbs connected by thin skin, which they stretch out, as 
the framework of an umbrella supports its covering. By 
this singular structure the animal is supported in the air, 



101. What remarkable animal is here named ? 

102. What of thr flying lemur ? 



CHEIROPTERA. 57 

as by a parachute ; but it has not the power of sustaining 
a continued flight, though it can leap a distance of a hun- 
dred yards with a gradual descent. Like the bats, it feeds 
on insects, and sleeps with its head downwards, suspended 
by its hind legs. It is a native of the Indian archipelago. 
The other of these aberrant forms is the theironiy , or ai/e- 
aye, which, from the peculiar form of its two lower front 
teeth, has been ranged with the Rodentia. In its general 
character, however, it is essentially a lemur; the thumbs 
of the hind feet are opposable to the other toes, which is 
not the case with any truly rodent animal, and approaches 
to a similar conformation of the teeth as seen in other 
lemurs. Moreover, it is a native of Madagascar, the centre 
of this group. It is a nocturnal animal, about the size 
of a hare : it is said to spend its day in holes in the ground 
(but these are probably not of its own excavation), and at 
night to climb trees, from the crevices in the bark of which 
it picks out worms and lavae of insects with its long slender 
fingers. 

Order III. — Cheiroptera, [from the Greek, keir, hand, and pteron, 
wing; winged-hands.] 

67. The order Cheiroptera (formerly arranged by Cuvier 
as the first family of the order Carnaria) is perhaps the 
most distinctly circumscribed group of the whole class 
Mammalia ; for all the animals composing it agree in the 
possession of a pair of wings, formed by an extension of 
the skin over the very elongated fingers of the fore legs, 
and connected also with the hind legs, by which they are 
adapted to raise and sustain themselves in the air, and 
also to propel themselves through it by regular continued 
movements, in precisely the same manner as birds. Now, 
although in other groups we may observe a tendency 
towards the same adaptation, it is never carried further 
than to give to the animal possessing it the power of 
partially supporting itself in the air, so as to prolong its 
leaps, as is the case with the flying-squirrel, the flying; 

103. What other variety in this £roup ? 
104 Dpsorihp thp third m 



58 



ZOOLOGY. 



lemur, and flying-opossum. None of these animals can 
really /??/, like bats and birds. 

68. We see in the bats a very inter sting modification 
of the whole character of the mammal, to enable it to 
lc ad the life of a bird, just as in the whale tribe we see a 
similar adaptation to the life of a fish. The insectivorous 
bats bear a strong analogy to the swallow, in the character 
of the food itself, as in the mode in which they obtain it 
- — by the rapid pursuit of insects on the wing ; the chief 







Skeleton of Bat. 



difference in habit being the time at which they respec- 
tively go forth in search of their prey. "No sooner does 
the diurnal family of swallows retire to rest, and with 
them those particular tribes of insects upon which they 
feed, and which fly only during the day, than those twi- 
light wanderers, the goatsuckers and the bats, emerge 
from their dark retreats ; at the same time a host of noc- 



105. What of their habits t 



CHEIROPTERA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 59 

turnal insects, which have also lain dormant during the 
noontide hours, commence their flight, and are thus des- 
tined by nature to supply food to their natural enemies. 
Now, the effect, in both instances, is the same ; for the 
insect world is kept within due limits, while life and en- 
joyment are given to innumerable living beings, formed 
and created for particular times and seasons. Bats and 
swallows catch their prey only upon the wing; and their 
evolutions are so similar, that, but for the time of day at 
which they respectively appear, it would be totally im- 
possible to distinguish the one from the other during 
flight." 

(39. The whole structure of the Cheiroptera is obviously 
adapted to the fulfilment of the object which is the dis- 
tinguishing character of the group. All the bones of the 
upper extremity, as well as those which give attachment 
to its muscles, are very largely developed. The member 
itseif, although consisting essentially of the same parts as 
in man, has its aspect greatly changed by the extraordi- 
nary prolongation of the finger bones, upon which chiefly 
the skin of the wings is stretched. The skin is extremely 
thin, and is generally devoid of hair on both sides. It ex- 
tends not only between the fingers, but from the last fin- 
ger to the posterior extremity, and from this to the tail, 
where one exists. This expansion of the tail probably 
serves as a rudder, enabling the animal to change its 
course rapidly in pursuit of its insect prey — an idea which 
is supported by the fact, that in the bats which feed on 
vegetable substances, or on animals which require less 
activity of pursuit, this part is either wholly wanting or 
is much circumscribed in extent and power. 

70. The four fingers of the anterior extremity being 
involved in the expansion of the membrane, only the thumb 
is left free ; this is of moderate length, and is furnished 
with a crooked nail, which is of great use to the animal 
in climbing and in making its way along the ground. The 
toes of the hind feet are short, and furnished with claws, 
by which the bats suspend themselves from the trees or 

106. Describe th^ir s:rueture. 



60 ZOOLOGY. 

walls on which they rest, hanging with the head down- 
wards. They walk with slowness and difficulty when 
placed on the ground ; the wings are folded up ; and they 
rest upon the hind feet, and upon the claw of the thumb, 
by which they crawl forwards, pushing on first one side 
and then the other. But they can climb up perpendicular 
surfaces with considerable agility. The expanded skin 
of the wings appears to be endowed with a sensibility of a 
peculiar kind, enabling the animals to perceive their proxi- 
mity to solid bodies without the assistance of sight. That 
they have a very acute perception of this kind, was long 
ago shown by the experiments of Spallanzani, who found 
that bats deprived of sight, and, as far as possible, of hear- 
ing also, were still capable of directing their flight with 
security and accuracy, finding their way through passages 
only just large enough to admit them without coming in 
contact with the sides, and even avoiding numerous small 
threads which were stretched across the room in various 
directions — the wings never, even by accident, touching 
them. It is probably through the vibrations of the air, 
which will differ according as the wing strikes it in the 
neighbourhood or the absence of any solid body, that the 
knowledge of the proximity of such is communicated to 
the delicate and expanded organ of touch. The use of this 
curious power to animals intended to execute rapid and 
varied movements in the dark, and amongst trees, build- 
ings, &c, is sufficiently evident. 

71. This tendency to a great extension of the skin is 
manifested in other parts of the body. In many bats, 
especially of the insectivorous kind, the external ear is 
enormously developed ; being, in the long-eared bat of 
this country, nearly as long as the body. In \hefrugivo- 
rous bats, [from the Latin, fruges, fruit, and vorare, to eat,] 
it is of ordinary size. The organ of smell, too, in many 
of the insectivorous bats, is furnished with curious leaf- 
like appendages, formed of the integument doubled, 
folded, and cut into the most curious and grotesque forms. 



107. What other peculiarities are nained ? 

108. How is the ahsenrp of vision compensator for 7 



CHEIROPTERA CLASSIFICATION. 6 1 

The group in which these are most remarkable, is one 
which avoids the light of day even more than others ; the 
animals composing 1 it exist almost constantly in the darkest 
recesses of caverns ; and it is probable that, by this pecu- 
liar conformation, they gain increased power and delicacy 
of the sense of smell, which in part compensates for the 
inutility of the organs of vision. 

72. The families composing this order may be arranged 
under two principal divisions, which are strongly con- 
trasted with each other in regard to the nature of their 
food, the conformation of their teeth and digestive system, 
and the peculiarities of structure which are connected with 
the mod ■ in which food is obtained One of these groups, 
which may be regarded as typical of the order, is insec- 
tivorous ; the molar teeth are' furnished with pointed tu- 
bercles, as in the order Insectivora ; and the stomach and 
digestive system are evidently adapted to animal food. 
The other group is probably omnivorous, [from omnis, all, 
and r irare, to eat,] like many of the monkeys — feeding 
chiefly on fruits, but pursuing small birds, or large insects, 
that may be obtained without much difficulty ; their molar 
teeth have flattened crowns, adapted for bruising and grind- 
ing their food ; and the complex structure of the stomach 
and intestinal canal shows its adaptation iri% vegetable diet. 
The proportional length of the intestine, in specimens of 
these two groups, is a remarkable illustration of this differ- 
ence of adaptation. In the great bat of this country, be- 
longing to the former group, it is only twice the length of 
the body ; whilst in the frugivorous p eropus of the tropics, 
it is seven times. 

73. The Insectivorous group may be distributed into 
four families : — (i.) Rhinolophin^e : in these, the nose- 
leaf is of complicated structure, and is membranaceous; 
the index or forefinger has but one joint ; the wings are 
large and broad, (ii.) Phyllosotomin^e, which have the 
nasel appendage simple and fleshy, and an index-finger of 
two joints, (in.) Vespertilionid^e, which are destitute 



109. What other singularities are cited ? 
1 10. How are thpy divided primarily I 

6 



62 ZOOLOGY. 

of nasal appendages, and have a single joint in the fore- 
finger, (iv.) Noctilionin^e, which are also destitute of 
nasal appendages, but have two joints in the index-finger. 
74. (i.) To the first of these families, the Rhinolophin^e, 
belong the greater and lesser horse-shoe ba?s, which are 
found in the darkest and most secluded retreats of our own 
country ; their name is derived from the peculiar form of 
the anterior nasal appendage. The family contains many 
other genera and species, most of which are inhabitants 
of the Old World. One of the most curious is the nycteris, 
which has the power of distending the skin, which is very 
loosely fitted to the body, with air, blown into it through 
openings at the bottom of the check-pouches which these 
animals possess. These openings are guarded by a circu- 
lar muscle which prevents the return of the air, except at 
the will of the animal ; and large valves for the same pur- 
pose exist in the neck and back. By this curious me- 
chanism, the nycteris has the power of so completely dis- 
tending the skin, as to give the idea of " a little balloon 
furnished with wings, a head, and feet." In this manner, 
the specific gravity of the body is diminished ; and some 
other purpose may be answered by the contrivance, as in 
the case of the analogous air-cells of birds. 

75. (n.) To the second family, the Phyllostominje, 
belongs the celebrated vampire, of the blood-thirsty pro- 
pensities of which such marvellous stories have been told. 
The wound inflicted by its teeth is very small ; but its 
tongue is endowed with a peculiar power of suction, by 
which a considerable amount of blood may perhaps be 
drawn. There are no well-authenticated accounts of the 
death of any animal having been occasioned by this crea- 
ture ; and the story of its fanning its victim with its wings 
to keep him cool, and render his sleep more profound, is 
probably a fiction of the imagination. Some of these bats 
have the tail very short, and in others it is altogether ab- 
sent. They appear to feed in part upon succulent fruits ; 



111. How many and what families are insectivorous? 

112. What of the first? 

1 13. Describe the second ? 






CHEIROPTERA CLASSIFICATION. 63 

but there is one genus, the extreme shortness of whose in- 
testine indicates that it must derive its food from animal 
matter almost exclusively. One of these has been taken 
in the act of sucking blood from the neck of ahorse. The 
vampires are confined to South America, but other mem- 
bers of this family inhabit the eastern hemisphere. Many 
of them attain considerable dimensions ; the body being 
equal in size to that of a magpie, and the wings, when ex- 
panded, measuring between two and three feet across. 

70. (m.) The third family, Vespertilionid^e, is by far 
the most numerous, and includes most of the bats of tem- 
perate climates. At least thirteen species exist in Great 
Briiain, the largest of which is the mouse-coloured bat, 
the expansion of whose wings measures fifteen inches ; 
but this is of rare occurrence. A more common one is the 
noctule, or great bat, which is but little smaller ; this is 
often met with in considerable numbers, seeking its retreat 
sometimes in the hollows of trees, at others under the roofs 
and eaves of houses. Probably the most abundant is the 
long-eared bat, which is easily distinguished by the charac- 




Long-eared Ba . 

ter implied in its name. Its ears are folded downwards 
during hybernation [from the Latin, hibernare, to winter] 
or profound sleep. It is easily tamed when in confine- 

114. What of the third family ? 

115. Which is the most numerous of the last family ? 



64 ZOOLOGY. 

ment, and may be brought to considerable familiarity, 
so as to eat from the hand. It has an acute and shrill, 
but not loud cry. 

77. (iv.) The bats of the fourth family, Noctilionin^k, 
are almost exclusively confined to tropical countries. The 
number of species belonging to this group is very large, 
but few of them present any important peculiarities. One 
of the most interesting is the cheiromeles, an inhabitant of 
Java and Siam, which has a distinct opposable thumb on 
the hind feet, by which it can grasp small objects. It is, 
therefore, an evident connecting link between the orders 
Cheiroptera and Quadrumana 

78. (v.) The frugivorous or omnivorous group contains 
but one family, the Pteroptn^e. This is widely diffused 
throughout warm climates, and contains some of the largest 
species of the order. It is not improbable that the fabu- 
lous harpy may have its origin in some of these. None 
of them have the tail much developed, and in many it is 
entirely absent. The pterojms Jttvinicits is a very cha- 
racteristic example of this family. It ifc probably the 
largest of the bats — its expanded wings measuring five 
feet across. It is extremely abundant in the lower parts 
of Java, and uniformly lives in societies. They suspend 
themselves from trees during the day ; and, from their 
motionless aspect and contracted bodies, they might be 
mistaken for parts of the tree, or for fruit suspended from 
its branches. When night comes, they begin to move, 
and go in search of food to the forests, villages, and plan- 
tations, in all of which they do great mischief, attacking 
indiscriminately almost any kind of fruit, of which they 
devour a large quantity. In their turn, they are eaten by 
the human inhabitants of some of the countries where they 
abound, who consider them as delicacies. The flesh of 
the common roussette of the Mauritius has been compared 
to that of the hare and partridge. 

79. The Cheiroptera or bats, inhabiting temperate cli- 
mates, all remain in a torpid state during the winter. Some 



116. What of the fourth in this group ? 

117. What of the omnivorous division? 



INSECTIVORA DESCRIPTION. 65 

of them make their appearance, however, in mild days ; 
but as casual revivals during the season of repose are in- 
jurious to them, they usually betake themselves to places 
of which the temperature is not readily affected by ex- 
ternal vicissitudes. The office of this group in the eco- 
nomy of nature, is evidently to assist birds in restraining 
the too rapid multiplication of insects, and to keep down 
the luxuriance of tropical vegetation. 

Order IV. — Insectivora, [from the Latin insectus, an insect, and 
vo rare, to eat.] 

80. The order Insectivora forms a group which is in- 
termediate between the Cheiroptera and the Carnivora. 
Like the greater part of the first-named of these orders, 
the animals composing it are formed to live upon insect 
food ; their molar teeth are beset with pointed conical tu- 
b rcles. adapted to crush the hard envelopes of their prey: 
and they are, for the most part, like the bats, nocturnal 
animals — like them, too, passing the winter of temperate 
climates in a state of torpidity. But they are completely 
destitute of the wing-like expansions which enable those 
animals to rise into the air in search of their prey ; it is 
their function to seek it upon the ground, or even by 
burrowing beneath it. Hence, in their general organiza- 
tion, they more resemble the Carnivora ; but they retain 
the clavicle (collar-bone) of the higher orders, which in 
the Carnivora is reduced to a ligament, and this affords, 
in the burrowing species, a very important attachment to 
the powerful muscles by which their anterior members 
are put in action. 

81. The teeth in this order are extremely variable, and 
cannot be so safely followed as guides to classification as 
the general structure and habits. All the animals belong- 
ing to it possess the peculiar conformation of the molars al- 
ready described ; the front molar, however, is usually of a 
form adapted for cutting, like those of the Carnivora ; but 
posterior to this, there are generally three with conical tu- 



118. What are the habits and office of bats ? 
119 Describe the fourth order. 
6* 



66 ZOOLOGY. 

bercles. The disposition of the incisors and canines is 
very variable ; in some species they are long, and in 
others short, and the forms of all the teeth are often so 
much changed that it is difficult to assign them to their 
respective classes. 

82. This order may be divided into four families, which 
are characterized by their habits as well as by their ex- 
ternal form and internal structure, (i.) Talpid^e or Mole 
tribe. These are pre-eminently subterranean, and are 
distinguished by their extraordinary habits of forming long 
and complicated burrows under ground, passing their 
whole lives in these retreats, in which they are born, feed, 
breed, hybernate, and die. (n.) Soricid^e, or Shrews. 
These are a sort of carnivorous mice, which, though they 
do not actually burrow, retreat during the winter, and in 
their ordinary repose, into holes ; they feed, however, on 
the surface or in the water, several of them being partially 
aquatic, diving with facility after aquatic insects, and re- 
maining without difficulty long under water, (in.) Erin- 
acead^e, or Hedgehogs. Here we have still hybernating 
animals, but instead of burrowing or descending into deep 
excavations, they conceal themselves at or near the sur- 
face, where they find their food. The hair is converted 
into spines of considerable firmness, (iv.) Tupaiad*:, 
consisting of a single genus, the 7\tpaia. These partake 
of the character of the Insectivorous Ciuadrumana, living 
in trees, which they climb with the agility of a monkey or 
a squirrel. 

83. It is remarkable that, as far as yet known, no spe- 
cies of this order exist in South America or Australia. 
In the former continent their place seems to be supplied 
by the Edentata, of which many species are similar in 
their food and habits ; and in New Holland they are re- 
placed by numerous small Marsupialia, having the same 
general adaptation of their structure to insect food and to 
an underground residence. 

84. (i.) Of the Talpid^e, the common English mole is 
a very characteristic example. The whole structure of 

120. Into what families is the group divided ? 



INSECTIVORA THE COMMON MOLE. 67 

this animal is beautifully adapted to the subterranean life 
which it leads, and to the mode in which it seeks its food. 
A rery short arm, attached to a large shoulder-blade, sup- 
ported by a stout clavicle, and provided with enormous 
muscles, sustains an extremely large hand, the palm of 
which is always directed either outwards or backwards. 
The hand comes to a sharp edge below, and though the 
fingers are scarcely perceptible, the nails which terminate 
them are long, flat, strong, and sharp. This forms a most 
admirable spade, by which the earth is at the same time 
dug away, and thrown behind the animal. The sternum 
(breast-bone) possesses, in common with that of bats and 
birds, a ridge or keel, for the attachment of the large pec- 
toral muscles which are necessary to endow the anterior 
member with the required power. To pierce and raise 
up the ground, the animal employs its pointed head, of 
which the muzzle is greatly prolonged, and terminated 
by a little bone which serves as a borer. This prolonged 
snout is also used as an organ of prehension, for by it the 
food is seized and conveyed to the mouth. The hinder 
part of the body is feeble, and tru> animal advances above 
ground so awkwardly as to convey the impression of pain ; 
but when placed in its gallery, or in a tube of the same 
size, it pushes itself forwards by its hind feet with great 
activity. The arrangement of the hairs composing the 
fur is such, that they will lie smooth in any direction : by 
which provision, the surface is prevented from offering 
any impediment to the motion of the animal either for- 
wards or backwards. 

85. The mole has been supposed to be deficient in the 
sense of sight, the eyes being so small and so hidden b - 
hind the hair, that their existence was long denied ; it has 
been ascertained, however, to be tolerably sharp-sighted. 
(There is a species inhabiting the south of Europe, very 
closely resembling the common mole, which is certainly 
blind ; the eyelids of which are totally closed.) The 
sense of smell is extremely acute, and its organ largely 
developed ; it is probable that to this almost entirely the 

121. Describe the first of these. 



68 ZOOLOGY. 

mole is ordinarily indebted for the perception of its food, 
of its enemies, and of its mate. At the same time it ap- 
pears to be assisted by that of hearing, which is certainly 
acute, although aided by no external ear. The burrows 
of the mole are of a beautifully complicated construction, 
and are formed with the utmost art. Its food chiefly con- 
sists of earth-worms and the larvae of beetles. When 
hungry, however, it will attack mice, lizards, frogs, or 
small birds, that may fall in its way ; and it is said that 
if two moles are confined together, they will fight until 
one is vanquished, and that the victor will then devour his 
fellow. Besides these forms of animal matter, vegetable 
substances, especially the roots of plants, and the smaller 
roots of trees, are found in the stomach of the mole ; but 
it may be doubted whether it eats these as food, or whether 
it does not simply tear them for the purpose of extracting 
the larvae and worms which may be entwined among 
them. 

86. Much controversy has taken place as to whether 
moles are on the whole injurious or beneficial to the agri- 
culturist ; some parties maintaining that they injure crops 
of various kinds by the destruction of their roots, and dig 
up and scatter the plants in ploughing their superficial 
furrows, besides rendering the ground dry and sterile by 
their subterranean roads ; whilst others point to their de- 
struction of earth-worms and grubs, and to the lightening 
of the soil produced by their operations, in proof of their 
beneficial character. The truth probably lies between the 
two extremes — the animal being neither prejudicial nor 
useful to the extent attributed to it by its enemies and 
friends respectively ; but pretty certainly counterbalancing 
its mischief by the good it effects. 

87. The chrytiochloris, or Cape mole, inhabiting the 
south of Africa, is very similar to the common mole in 
structure and habits ; but is remarkable as being the only 
known mammal which presents any appearance of those 
splendid metallic reflections which adorn so many birds, 



122. What of the blindness of moles? 

V23. How are <hey supposed to affect agriculture? 



INSECTIVORA THE HEDGEHOGS. Otf 

fishes, and insects. Its fur is green, changing with the 
light to a copper or bronze. 

38. (n.) In the Soricid^e, or Shrews, all the feet are 
formed for running. These animals are usually small, 
but are very numerous and widely diffused. The fur is 
soft, short, and silky, and the tail long; so that the com- 
mon shrew bears a strong general resemblance to a mouse, 
except that the snout is long and slender. The general 
habits of this family have already been mentioned. They 
do not form complex burrows at a distance from the sur- 
face, but live on or near it. The common shrew of this 
country frequents dry situations, feeding on insects and 
worms, in pursuit of which its attenuated snout enables it 
to grub amongst the closest herbage or under the surface 
of the soil. On the other hand, the water shrew frequents 
the margins of streams ; and the under surfaces of its 
feet and tail are extended by a set of bristle-like hairs 
fixed in their margins, by which these organs are enabled 
to act as oars and rudder. It chiefly feeds upon aquatic 
insects ; but it burrows in the side of the bank, and pro- 
bably obtains additional food from the land. There are in 
other countries larger animals of the shrew kind, some of 
which resemble the mole in general structure and habits. 
They all form an odorous secretion, which exudes from 
the midst of a band of stiff closely-set bristles on each 
flank. 

&9. (in.) The Erinaceadje, Urchins or Hedgehogs, 
are remarkable not only for their covering of spines, but 
for the great development of the muscular envelope of 
the body immediately beneath the skin (especially on the 
back), which in most other animals is scarcely perceptible. 
By this they are enabled to roll themselves into a ball, 
presenting a panoply of sharp spines to their enemies. 
These are not only strong enough to resist attacks, but are 
sufficiently elastic to enable the animal to throw itself 
down upon them from considerable heights. So that, al- 
though destitute of all means of attacking its enemies or 
of defending itself by force, and not able to seek safety in 

124. Describe the second family ? 



70 



ZOOLOGY. 



flight, the hedgehog *is endowed with a safeguard more 
secure and effectual than the teeth and claws of the wild- 
cat or the fleetness of the hare. . In its natural state the 
hedgehog is nocturnal, remaining coiled up in its retreat by 
day, and moving about all 
night in search of food. Its 
run is quick and shuffling, 
and, as it were, by starts. In- 
sects, worms, slugs, and snails, 
form the usual food of the 
hedgehog; but it will also 
devour frogs, toads, mice, and 
even snakes ; and has been 
known to feed on eggs and 
vegetable substances. It is 
easily rendered familiar with 
man and with other animals. 
Other species of this family 
connect it with the previous 
and succeeding groups, the spines not differing so much 
in size and strength from hares, and the powers of rolling 
up the body being absent. Fig. A gives a view of the 
common hedgehog with the skin removed ; fig. B repre- 
sents the same animal extended. 




Fig A. 




Fig. B. 

90. (iv.) The last family, that of Tupaiad^e, or Banx- 
rings, is a very remarkable one. It is confined to the 
Indian archipelago, and has not been long known to exist. 



125. Whit of the third? 

126. Explain the diagrams ? 



CARMVORA CLASSIFICATION. 71 

Their teeth chiefly resemble those of the urchins, with a 
slight tendency towards the lemurs; and, like this last group, 
their eyes are large and prominent. They are covered 
with hair, which is soft and glistening, but not fine in tex- 
ture, and have a long bushy tail. Contrary to the habits 
of other Insectivora, they ascend trees with the agility of 
a squirrel; from which animal, however, their pointed 
muzzle renders them easily distinguishable, even at a 
distance. They are readily tamed, running freely through 
the house, and coming of themselves at every meal for 
fruit or milk. 

Order V. — Carnivora, or flesh-eaters. 

91. The animals composing the order Carnivora are, 
like the four previous orders, separated from the other 
Mammalia possessing distinct fingers by the presence of 
three kinds of teeth, and from these orders they are dis- 
tinguished by characters which point them out as espe- 
cially formed for the pursuit and destruction of large 
animals. They possess in the upper and lower jaw six 
incisor teeth ; a large, strong, and pointed canine tooth on 
each side ; and molar teeth, which are evidently formed 
for cutting and tearing rather than for bruising or grinding. 
The form of these teeth varies, however, in the different 
genera, in accordance with their several habits. These 
molars consist of three kinds: the anterior, immediately 
following the canines, which are always more or less 
pointed, and are termed false molars ; the next class, 
formed especially for cutting the flesh upon which the 
animals feed, are termed carnivorous teeth ; and the pos- 
terior are tuberculated, with flattened summits. 

92. The proportion which these different classes bear 
to each other in number and development, accords with 
the degree of the carnivorous propensity of the animai, 
and furnishes important characters in the subdivision of 
the order. The more the surface of the molar teeth is 
raised into points and edges, and the more the action of 
the jaws is restricted to the scissors-like movement by 

127. What of the last famiiy? 

128. Describe the fifth order. 



72 ZOOLOGY. 

which these edges are made to meet and pass each other, 
the more purely carnivorous is the regimen of the ani- 
mal : this is well seen in the Cat tribe. On the other 
hand, the more the molar surfaces are flattened, and the 
greater the lateral grinding motion of which the jaws are 
susceptible, the greater is the probable admixture of vege- 
table food : this is seen in the Bears. The general struc- 
ture of the body, and especially that of the extremities, 
is modified in a corresponding manner, in accordance with 
the habits and propensities of the animal. In all, the toes 
are furnished with claws, which are peculiarly sharp in 
the cats, and are in them kept ready for use within a 
sheath, from which they can be projected at the will of 
the animal. The stomach of the Carnivora is very simple 
in its form, and the intestines are short, in accordance with 
the easily digested character of their food. 

93. The whole bony and muscular system exhibits a 
similar modification. Thus, whilst the powerful yet ac- 
tive and flexible movements of the purely carnivorous 
animals are adapted only to the pursuit and destruction of 
living prey, the more sluggish habits of most of the Bear 
tribe, their peculiar mode of progression, and the modified 
structure of the skull, the teeth, and the limbs, are all equally 
applicable to the mixed nature of their food. The differ- 
ence in the conformation of the extremities, and in the 
mode of using them, is very striking in these two antago- 
nized groups. In the former, the ends of the toes only 
touch the ground, the heel being considerably raised into 
the air ; in this way, the limbs can be used to much 
greater advantage in running and springing : the animals 
possessing this conformation are termed digitigrade [toe- 
stepping] Carnivora. In the latter the whole foot rests 
on the ground — a structure more favourable to the main- 
tenance of a firm position, but preventing great activity of 
progression: these are called plantigrade [sole-stepping] 
Carnivora. There is a third very remarkable variety of 
conformation in the extremities of this order; and this is 
exhibited in the Seals. Here the anterior as well as the 



12 ( J. How is ilu-ir s;mh lure modified ? 



CARMVORA CLASSIFICATION. 73 

posterior feet are formed for swimming, being spread into 
fin-like paddles ; and the whole arrangement of their or- 
gans is admirably adapted to the pursuit and capture of 
their scaly prey. 

94. The Carnivori may be subdivided into five families, 
each containing a well-known form, (i.) Felid^e, or Cat 
tribe. In these the destructive power is most highly de- 
veloped. They are characterized by their short powerful 
jaws, their retractile claws, and the peculiar adaptation of 
their teeth for cutting. They have but one small flat- 
tened molar tooth above, and do corresponding one below, 
(n.) Canid^e, or Dog tribe. These, like the cats, are di- 
gitigrade ; but their claws are not retractile ; and they 
have two flat tuberculated molars behind the great flesh- 
cutter, (in.) Mitstilid.e, or Weasel tribe. These are 
mostly semi-plantigrade, a portion of the sole touching the 
ground. They are distinguished by their long narrow 
bodies, and by the presence of only one tuberculated mo- 
lar, (iv.) Ursid^e, or Bear tribe. These are the only 
true plantigrade Carnivora. Most of them possess several 
tuberculous teeth, (v.) Phocid,e, or Seal tribe. These 
are at once distinguished by the adaptation of their form 
and structure to a residence in the water ; and of their 
teeth for holding the slippery surface of fish, and crushing 
them before they are swallowed. 

95. (1.) The Cat tribe includes a large number of ani- 
mals very closely resembling each other in structure and 
aspect — so closely, indeed, that many of the species can 
only be distinguished by their size, and by the markings 
of their skin. They all agree, too, in the mode of catch- 
ing their prey, which is to steal upon it unawares, and 
seize it with a sudden spring, in which they expend their 
energy, often slinking off when once baffled. It is very 
difficult to subdivide the family, on account of the strong 
general resemblance of its members. Most of them are 
sufficiently well known to render any peculiar description 
of them unnecessary. It may, however, be remarked, 

130. How are their extremities diversified? 

131. ISaine the several families of the Carnivora. 



74 ZOOLOGY. 

that some species are found in almost all tropical and tem- 
perate countries, and that those of different parts of the 
globe represent each other in a remarkable manner. Thus, 
the lion and tiger axe inhabitants of Africa and tropical 
Asia ; in America they are replaced by the puma and 
jaguar, which are confined to that continent. In the 




Puma. 

same manner, we find the panther and leopard spread 
over tropical Asia and Africa; the ounce inhabiting the 
Asiatic mountains; the caracal in Turkey and Persia; 
and the lynx of Northern Europe. These are represented 
by the ocelot in South America, the lynx of Canada (dif- 
fering from the European species), and other less known 
species. The Felidae, [from the Latin, fells, a cat,] like 

\M. What examples of the Cat tribe are cited ? 



CARNIVORA THE DOGS, HYENAS, &C. 75 

the noble falcons, will only eat the flesh of animals they 
have themselves killed, except when in a state of domes- 
tication or confinement, or when compelled by hunger. 

96. (n.) The family of Canid^e [from the Latin Canis, 
a dog] includes a much larger number of different forms, 
some of which approximate to the Cat tribe, and others to 
the weasels and bears. This tendency to variation from a 
typical form is most remarkably shown in the races of the 
common dog, which are believed to have all had the same 
origin, although the commencement of most of them is en- 
tirely unknown. The animals of this family agree in their 
greater or less adaptation to a mixed diet. Although ani- 
mal flesh naturally constitutes the principal food of all, 
they do not attack living animals with a degree of boldness 
proportional to their strength, and many of them feed upon 
carrion, sometimes even when it is much putrefied. The 
wolves, foxes, and jackals, are the animals which most 
nearly approach the dog ; and with the first of these it is 
regarded by many naturalists as being really identical. 
A very curious connecting link between this division of 
the family and the hyaenas, is the wild dog of the Cape 
(Lycaon picta). This resembles the dog rather than the 
hyaena in its teeth, but in its tall gaunt form and general 
aspect it is more analogous to the latter, w T hich it is also 
believed to resemble in internal conformation. It lives in 
numerous packs, which often approach Cape Town and 
devastate the environs. 

97. The Hyaenas constitute a group remarkably distinct 
from the true Canidae, and yet bearing enough of their 
characters to require to be associated with them. They 
are more purely carnivorous than the dog tribe, and, in 
the deficiency of tuberculated molars, approach to the cats. 
But they differ from these, not only in general aspect, 
which is much more nearly allied to that of the dog, but 
also in the absence of the retractile power of the claws, 
and in their propensity to feed on carrion. The teeth are 
i eculiarly adapted for crushing bones, and their jaws are 



133. What peculiarity is mentioned respecting food ? 

134. What characterizes the Dog tribe ? 



76 



ZOOLOGY. 



shorter than those of the dog, but lono-er than those of the 
Felidae. In many other points of structure, the hyaenas 
are intermediate between the two groups. They are pe- 
culiarly ferocious animals, combining the persevering 
doggedness of the one tribe with the furious blood-thirsti- 
ness of the other. Their habits are nocturnal — more so 
than those of most other Carnivora. Hyaenas are now 
chiefly confined to Africa and the south of Asia; but there 
is no doubt, from the abundant remains of them which are 
preserved to us, that they must have formerly lived in 
large numbers in England, and in other parts of Eu- 
rope. 

98. Another curious South African animal conducts us 
from the hyaenas towards the Civet tribe, which consists 
of small animals, some resembling the cat in form, but 
having two or more tuberculous grinders, and in many 
instances a plantigrade walk. In the true civets there 




African Civet. 



is a pouch situated near the tail, containing a secretion of 
a musky odour, which is valued as a perfume. They 
are beautiful spotted animals, natives of Africa and India; 
they are of an indolent disposition, easily tamed, and 



135 How are the Hyaena group described ? 



CARNIVORA THE OTTERS, RACOONS, &C. 77 

feed partly on fruits. Allied to these is the celebrated 
ichneumon of Egypt, which is an animal larger than 
our cat, and as slender as a marten, sharing in the highly 
carnivorous propensities of the next family. It chiefly 
hunts for the eggs of crocodiles, by destroying which it 
prevents the excessive multiplication of those reptiles ; 
it is easily domesticated, and exhibits much intelligence ; 
and it is brought up in houses, to keep them free 
from mice and other small animals. The ancient allega- 
tion of its entering the throat of the crocodile to destroy 
it, is quite fabulous. The common Indian species is cele- 
brated for its combats with the most venomous serpents. 

9i). The MustelidvE are the- most bloodf/rirsfi; of all 
the Carnivora ; but they are not so much adapted for de- 
vouring flesh as are the Felidae. These animals, on 
account of the length of the body and the shortness of the 
limbs, which permit them to pass through very small 
openings, are called vermiform [or worm-shaped"]. All 
the members of this family are semi-plantigrade ; and they 
thus conduct us to the truly plantigrade Carnivora. The 
weasel of this country is a very characteristic example of 
the family ; it is one of the most sanguinary of any, but 
confines itself chiefly to small animals, destroying large 
numbers of mice, rats, moles, &c. The ferret which is 
an allied species, is bolder, having been known to attack 
man ; and the polecat is a great enemy to the farm-yard, 
game-preserve, and warren. All these animals have a 
strongly and disagreeably odorous exudation from a pouch 
under the tail ; but it is most disgusting in the last. The 
skunks are an American tribe, intermediate between the 
weasels and badgers, and are remarkable for the intensity 
of their nauseous, suffocating stench. 

100. The Otters constitute an aquatic form of this 
family, having the same general aspect and dentition with 
the weasels, but being readily distinguished from all other 
genera of the family by their wt bbed toes and horizontally 
flattened tail. They subsist on fish. Several species 

136. What of the Give? tribe? 

137. Describe the weasel group. 

7* 






78 ZOOLOGY. 

exist, which are diffused pretty universally over the globe, 
with the exception of Australia, where they are replaced 
by the extraordinary ornithorhyncus. The Indian species 
is employed for fishing-, as the dog for hunting. A large 
species frequents the waters of the North Pacific Ocean, 
along the shores of Kamtschatka and Siberia, where it is 
hunted for its blackish velvet-looking fur. This species 
is said to feed partly on sea-weed. The British otter, also, 
occasionally visits the sea, swimming to some distance 
from the mouths of the rivers which it has descended. It 
is said to burrow in their banks ; but this is not correct, as 
it lives only in natural excavations. When the supply 
of fish is scanty, it has been known to resort far inland, 
and to attack lambs, sucking-pigs, and poultry. 

101. (iv.) The true plantigrade Carnivora, constituting 
the family of URsiDiE, [from the Latin ursa, a bear,] par- 
ticipate in the comparative slow motion and nocturnal 
life of the Insectivora ; and like them, too, the species 
which inhabit cold countries pass the winter in a dormant 
state. In the Bears, the cartilage of the nose is elongated 
and movable, somewhat resembling that of the Shrews. 
These animals possess a great facility, from the structure 
of the sole, of rearing themselves up on their hind feet ; 
and this may be especially noticed in such as are, like the 
bears, fruit-eaters, becoming carnivorous only from ne- 
cessity ; they are thus enabled to climb trees in search 
of food. The bears are the largest of the family ; and 
some species of them are pretty widely diffused over the 
globe. The rat tons, which resemble bears in miniature, 
with the exception of the greater length of the tail, are 
confined to America; but a very handsome animal, differ- 
ing but little from them, the pan la [Ailurus), is an in- 
habitant of the mountains of the north of India. It fre- 
quents trees, where it feeds on birds and small quadru- 
peds. The coulimondi resembles a racoon, with a larger 
tail, and a singularly elongated movable snout. It climbs 
trees, and also digs the ground in search of earth-worms, 

l38.What of the family of Oners \ 

139. How are the Bear tril»e characterized ? 



CARNIVORA THE BADGERS, SEALS, &C. 79 

on which it feeds, with slugs, snails, small mammalia, 
and birds, eggs, and vegetables. 

102. The Badgers, Taxels or Badgers of America, 
and the Wolverines, form a tribe connecting the Bears 
with the Mustelidae. The balger, for example, is only 
semi-plantigrade, and has a dentition very like that of the 
weasels and otters ; but adapted for a less carnivorous 
regimen. But it has the tardy gait and nocturnal habits 
of the other plantigrades ; it does not, however, become 
torpid in winter. All these animals, like the Weasel 
tribe, have the power of emitting a fetid odour at will. 
The European and American badgers burrow with great 
facility by means of the long claws of their fore feet. 
They go forth in search of food only by night ; and de- 
vour small animals which fall in their way, and such ve- 
getable substances as roots, earth-nuts, and beech-mast, 
almost indifferently. They are endowed with astonishing 
strength of jaws, and great muscular force, so as to confer 
upon them considerable powers of resistance. Of the 
Wolverines, the most celebrated species is the glutton of 
the north, which is about the size of a badger; it is re- 
puted to be very sanguinary and ferocious, subduing the 
largest animals by leaping on them from a tree. Some 
species of this tribe approach very closely to the Mustelidae. 

103. (v.) The last family, that of Phocid^e, [from the 
Latin, phoca, a seal,] (the Amphibia of Cuvier), is suffi- 
ciently distinguished from all the rest by the peculiar 
adaptation of the animals composing it to a marine resi- 
dence. Their feet are so short, and so enveloped in the 
skin, that they are of little use in progression on land. In 
Fact, the seal employs them only w r hen clambering, wrig- 
g'ing itself forwards along a plane surface by the action 
of the abdominal muscles. The intervals between the 
toes are occupied by membranes, so as to convert the feet 
into oars. The body is lengthened, and the spine very 
flexible, as in the Cetacea and Fishes ; and the animals 
are covered with a short close fur, sitting flat upon the skin. 
All these adaptations combine to render them able swim- 



140. What variety is mentioned here ? 



80 ZOOLOGY. 

mers ; and they pass the greatest part of their time in the 
water, which they only quit to bask in the sunshine and 
to suckle their young. 

104. Of the two genera, the Seals and the Morses, 
which this family contains, the former presents the hast 
departure from the general type of the order. It possesses 
all three kinds of teeth; but the canines are not particu- 
larly large, and the molars are neither adapted for shear- 
ing nor^for grinding the food, but are furnished with 
angular points adapted to keep hold of and crush the slip- 
pery prey. The head of the seal resembles that of a dog, 




Greenland Seal. 

presenting the same mild and expressive physiognomy. 
These animals seem to possess considerable intelligence ; 
they are easily tamed, and become much attached to their 
feeder. They subsist on fish, which they always devour 
in the water, dosing the nostrils by a kind of valve. Seals 
of various kinds are extensively diffused though the polar 
regions of both hemispheres, becoming scarcer in the tem- 
perate zo ie. They are occasionally seen on the coast 



141. Describe the Seal family. 

14-2. II »w is it divided ? 

1 13. Whai o\ ilic value; <>i the seal I 



THE CETACEA. 81 

of South Britain, but are more abundant on the north of 
Scotland. The fur-seal of the South Seas is extremely 
abundant in some localities ; for a period of fifty years not 
less than 1/200,000 skins were annually obtained from a 
single island. 

105. The walrus (also called morse, sea cow, sea-horse) 
resembles the seal in the general form of the body and 
limbs, but differs considerably in the head and teeth. 
The lower jaw has neither incisors nor canines, and is 
compressed laterally, to pass between two enormous 
canines or tusks, which issue from the upper one, and 
are directed downwards, sometimes attaining a length 
of two feet. These seem to be used by the animal in 
hooking up the sea- weeds on which it partly feeds. 
The morse is a very bulky creature, exceeding the 
largest bull in size, and attaining the length of twenty 
feet. It is an inhabitant of all parts of the Arctic seas, 
usually assembling in large numbers ; and individuals 
have occasionally visited the British shores. 

Order VI. — Cetacea. 

100. In the order Cetacea, or Whale tribe, the adap- 
tation of the mammiferous structure to the life of a fish is 
most remarkably displayed. The whole body is formed 
for an exclusive residence in the water. The posterior 
extremities are no longer present as in the seal, to assist 
in progression on land ; nor are the toes of the anterior 
furnished with claws. The trunk is prolonged into a 
thick tail, which terminates in a horizontal cartilaginous 
fin, by the vertical movement of which the propulsion of 
the body is effected. The head is very large, and is con- 
nected to the body (as in fishes) by so short and thick a 
neck, that no diminution of its circumference is perceptible ; 
and the cervical [from the Latin, cervix, neck] vertebrae, 
which are still (as in all Mammalia) seven in number, are 
very thin, and partly united together. The bones of the 
arm and fore-arm are very short ; and those of the hand 
are flattened, and enveloped in a tendinous membrane, 



144. How j« the genus of Ajor^p- riU'inguisherl ? 



82 ZOOLOGY. 

which reduces them to the condition of fins. Hence their 
whole aspect is that of fishes, except that they are not co- 
vered with scales, and that they have the tail-fin expanded 
in the contrary direction. The object of this last provi- 
sion is to enable them more readily to come to the surface 
to breathe, which they are obliged frequently to do. The 
largest species can remain, however, for an hour under 
water. Their blood, like that of other Mammalia, is 
warm ; and to prevent the animal temperature from being 
rapidly lowered by the conducting power of the water, 
they are furnished with a thick coating of fat over the 
whole body. There are never any external ears, nor 
hairs upon the bod} 7 *. In these general characters, some 
other whale-like animals, now separated from the true 
Crtncea, agree; but they differ in bein<x adapted for ve- 
getable food, whilst the true whales are all animal-feeders, 
and are, therefore, properly associated with the Carnivora, 
to which they make a near approach through the seal. It 
is evident that the want of claws should not exclude them 
from this division of the Mammalia, since these are ren- 
dered useless by the adaptation of the animal to an ex- 
clusively aquatic residence. Some of them, which feed 
upon large marine animals, seize their prey with their 
jaws, whilst others, which derive their support from the 
smaller kinds, engulf them, with a large quantity of water, 
in their capacious mouths. 

107. The true Cetacea are further distinguished from 
these herbivorous forms which are now associated with 
the Pachydermata, by the remarkable conformation from 
which they receive the name of Blowers. As with their 
prey they necessarily take in a great volume of water, a 
means of getting rid of this is required, and it is accord- 
ingly transmitted through the nostrils, and expelled, by a 
strong muscular action, through a narrow aperture pierced 
at the summit of the head. It is thus that these animals 
produce the jets by which they are observed at a great 
distance. Their nostrils, being continually bathed in water. 



145. Describe the structure of the Whale tribe. 

146. What peculiarities are cited ? 



CETACEA THE DOLPHIN, PORPOISE, &C. 63 

are not adapted to a delicate perception of odours ; and 
their organs of hearing, being deficient in the external 
ear, and otherwise formed on a lower type, are also pro- 
bably incapab'e of very acute perception of sound. But 
what is deficient in these respects seems to be compen- 
sated by a very high degree of sensibility of the general 
surface ; and there is reason to believe that, by this dif- 
fused sense, whales are enabled to take cognisance of what 
passes in the water at a considerable distance, through 
the medium of the vibrations excited in the fluid. 

108. In subdividing this order, the dentition does not 
afford much assistance, for the teeth are frequently absent 
altogether; and among the species which possess them, 
they often exhibit great differences, when the animals are 
closely allied. Where they exist, they are mostly small, 
numerous, and of a conical form, similar to each other. 
These animals do not chew their food, but swallow it 
whole. The stomach is usually of a rather complex form. 
The order may be divided into two families, according to 
the relative size of the head and body. In the first, Del- 
phtnidjE, or the Dolphin tribe, the head is not out of the 
usual proportion ; in the second, the BaljExid^e, or Whale 
tribe, it is immoderately large. 

109. (i.) The Delphinid^e have teeth throughout both 
jaws, all simple, and nearly always conical. They are 
the most carnivorous, and, in proportion to their size, the 
most cruel of their order. The common dolphin has its 
snout prolonged into a kind of beak. It is extremely agile 
in its movements; and a number are often seen sporting 
together on the surface of the water. It is doubtful how 
far there is any foundation for the tradition of the domes- 
tical lity of these animals, the fabulous and the true being 
strangely mixed up in the early accounts of them. Nearly 
allied to the dolphin is the porpoise, which has a short 
muzzle. This is one of the smallest of the Cetacea, not 
exceeding four or five feet in length, and is very common 
in various parts of the Atlantic, assembling in vast herds. 



147. How is the blowing of whales performed ? 

148. Into what families is this order divided ? 



84 ZOOLOGY. 

Allied to the porpoise is the p-rampus, which has large 
conical teeth, and is the most powerful of this family, attain- 
ing the length of from twenty to twenty-five feet. It is 
a cruel enemy to the whale, which it attacks in troops. 
Other species of this family are known on our coasts by 
the names of white whale, bntffe-nose, narwhal or sea- 
unicorn, &c. . This last animal is remarkable for the enor- 
mous development of a single tooth or tusk, commonly 
reputed to be a horn, whence the name usually given to 
the species. In the general form of the head and body it 
agrees closely with the porpoises ; but it possesses no other 
teeth than this tusk, which projects forwards, apparently 
from the centre of the upper jaw, to the length of ten feet. 
The animal really possesses, however, the germs of two 
tusks, of which only one is generally developed That 
on the left side usually attains its full growth, whilst the 
other remains permanently concealed within its socket. 
Another genus of Delphinidae, the inia, is remarkable as 
inhabiting the remote tributaries of the Amazons and the 
elevated lakes of Peru ; it has bristly hairs on the snout 
when young. 

1 10. (n.) The remaining Cetacea, constituting the family 
BaljEnid^e, have the head so very large as to constitute 
one-third, or even one-half, of the entire length ; but 
neither the cranium nor the brain participate in this 
disproportion, which is entirely due to an enormous deve- 
lopment of the bones of the face. This family contains 
several remarkable and important animals, amongst 
which the following may be noticed : — The catodon, or 
spermaceti whale, receives its technical name from pos- 
sessing teeth in the lower jaw only ; these are of consi- 
derable size, and lock into cavities in the upper jaw when 
the mouth is closed. The superior portion of the enor- 
mous head consists almost entirely of large cavities, sepa- 
rated and covered by cartilages, and filled with an oil that 
concretes in cooling, and is known by the name of sperma- 
ceti. This is commonly, but erroneously, reputed to be 



149. Describe the structure of the dolphin, 
150 What of thp sra-unicorn I 



CETACEA THE PLUNGING WHALE. 85 

the brain of the animal ; the cavities which contain it, 
however, are very distinct from the true cranial cavity, 
which is rather small, and lies at the posterior portion 
of the head. Cavities containing spermaceti are found 
in various parts of the body, even ramifying through 
the external fat or blubber, and these communicate with 
those in the head. This whale is extensively distributed 
through various seas, but chiefly abounds towards the 
antarctic region. It sometimes attains the length of seventy 
feet. 

111. The balsena, or Greenland whale, equals the ca- 
todon in size and in the proportional length of the 
head, which is not, however, so much enlarged in front. 
Instead of teeth, the mouth is provided with a number 
of vertical plates, terminating in fringes, which are com- 
posed of a sort of fibrous horn, and may be regarded 
as a kind of prolongation of the gum. These fringed 
plates, commonly known as whalebone, serve to retain, 
by straining from the water, the minute animals on 
which these enormous beings subsist. Their food con- 
sists partly of fishes, but chiefly of soft molluscs, aceph- 
alae, &c. The blubber is of immense thickness, and 
furnishes a large quantity of oil — a hundred and twenty 
tons being sometimes obtained from a single individual. 
The whalebone also is an important object of pursuit. 
This animal was formerly not very uncommon in British 
seas, but has now retired to the far north, where its 
numbers, in consequence of the attacks of man, is con- 
stantly diminishing. The rorqual, an allied species, 
attains to still greater size, having been seen of the 
1 ngth of a hundred feet. Like many of the Delphinidse, 
it has a dorsal fin, supported by cartilage only, and not 
by the prolonged spinous processes of the vertebras, as in 
fishes. 

1 12. When whales are struck by a harpoon, they 
usually dive head-foremost with great velocity, and 
often to a considerable depth. The muscular power 



151. What is remarkable in the whale ? 

152. What variptv is described? 

ft 



8<i 



ZOOLOGY. 



by which this is effected must be enormous, especially 
when the animal is 
under the pressure 
of a lofty column 
of water. The ani- 
mal sometimes de- 
scends so rapidly 
as seriously to in- 
jure itself by strik- 
ing the bottom at 
great depths ; one 
has been known to 
fracture its skull in< 
this manner eight 
hundred fathoms be- 
low the surface. 
After the lapse of 
twenty minutes or 
more, the whale is 
obliged to come 
again to the surface 
to breathe, and his 
pursuers then make 
another attack ; and 
this system is con- 
tinued until the ani- 
mal is exhausted by 
its efforts and by 

loss of blood. The tail is a very powerful weapon of 
offence and defence — a blow from it not unfrequently 
shattering boats, and doing great injury even to ships. 

Order VII. — Rodentia, [or gnawing tribe. J 

113. The order Rodentia bears a striking contrast tc 
the last, in the size as well as habits of the animals com- 
} oeing it, which are, for the most part, very diminutive ; 
but they arc very widely diffused, and are often extremely 
numerous. One species or another is found in almost 

153. What is 6aid of iheir diving ? 

154. What of their weapon of defence? 




The Planing Whal 



RODENTIA. 87 

every part of the world except New Holland, and some- 
times their numbers are so great as to render them very 
destructive to vegetation. Some of the order are the most 
gentle of the Mammalia, whilst others are so ferocious 
that, if their size and strength were proportional, they 
would be extremely formidable. This order contains also 
some of the species most remarkable for their instincts, as 
the beaver. Generally speaking, the Rodentia are the 
most prolific of the Mammalia, the period during which 
they go w r ith young being shorter, and their litters more 
numerous. 

1 14. But though the animals differ much from one an- 
other in size and external appearance, the order is a very 
natural one ; all the species contained in it being remark- 
able for the peculiar adaptation of their teeth to gnawing 
hard vegetable substances, and of the stomach and intes- 
tinal canal to the digestion of them. The mouth of a 
rodent animal is at once recognised by the two long teeth 
which project forwards from each jaw, working against 
one another, and separated from the molars by a wide 
interval. These are usually regarded as incisors ; but 
they are really the canines, the direction of which has 
changed in consequence of the absence of the incisors. 
In the hare, the small true incisor teeth may be seen be- 
hind them. These gnawing teeth have enamel in front 
only ; so that, their posterior edges being worn away 
faster than the anterior, they constantly retain a sloping 
or chisel-like edge. They continue to grow at the root as 
fast as they wear away at their points ; so that, if either 
be lost or broken, its antagonist in the other jaw, having 
nothing to wear it do\An, becomes developed to an enor- 
mous extent. The mode in which the lower jaw is articu- 
lated to the skull, allows of no horizontal motion except 
backwards and forwards ; and the flat-crowned molar 
teeth have enamelled ridges arranged transversely, so 
as to be in opposition to the horizontal movement of the 
jaw, and the better to assist in trituration. In a few of 



155. What is peculiar in the gnawing tribe ? 
W ha; i>i he structure ol their teei.h ( 



8S ZOOLOGY. 

the genera, the structure of the molars more approaches 
that of the Carnivora. 

115. The form of the body of the Rodentia is generally 
such that the hinder parts exceed those of the front, so 
that they leap rather than run. In some of them this dis- 
proportion is as excessive as in the kangaroos. The in- 
feriority of these animals to those of the orders already 
considered, is perceptible in many details of their organiza- 
tion ; the brain is less complex in structure ; the fore-arm 
loses the power of rotation, its two bones being often 
united ; and the eyes are directed sideways, showing their 
tendency to retreat from their enemies rather than to pur- 
sue them. In some, the clavicles (collar-bones) are nearly 
or entirely absent, the anterior extremity being then 
usually deficient in strength. 

116. The Rodentia may be divided into seven families, 
the technical distinctions between which are founded upon 
minute particulars in the structure of the cranium and 
of the lower jaw. (i.) Sciurid^e, or Squirrel tribe, com- 
prehending a large number of light and agile animals, 
chiefly distinguished by their long bushy tails, and by their 
adaptation to a residence in trees, and to live upon their 
produce, (n.) Murid^e, or Hal tribe, (in.) Castorid^e, or 
Beaver tribe, including the voles, lemmings, &c. (it.) Hys- 
triciDjE, or Porcupine tribe, (v.) Cavid^e, or Guinea- 
pig tribe. (vi.) Chinchillid^:, the Chinchilla tribe. 
(vn.) Leporidje, the Hare tribe. The rodents of the 
fourth, fifth, and seventh families are destitute of the cla- 
vicle, which those of the three first and the sixth possess. 

117. (i.) Of the family Scurid^e, the common squirrel 
of this country may be taken as a characteristic illustration ; 
and its form and habits are sufficiently well-known to ren- 
der a particular description unnecessary. It lives entirely 
upon vegetable food, in search of which it leaps with great 
agility from branch to branch. In taking these leaps, when 
it is once thrown off by an effort of its long and powerful 
hind legs, it is in a measure sustained by the horizontal 






157. Name the several families? 

158. Describe the squirrel group. 






R0DENTIA THE FLYING SQ^TRREL. 



80 



spreading of its limbs and bushy tail, the bairs of which 
are directed laterally, so as to resemble a feather. In the 
pteromyx, or flying-squirrel, this sustaining power is much 
increased by an extension of the skin of the flank between 




"g^^ 



Flying-Squirrel. 



the fore and hind legs, which serves as a parachute. The 
marmots are allied to the squirrels in the number and 
structure of their teeth, which are partly adapted, how- 
ever, to insect food. In other respects they are almost the 
reverse of squirrels, being heavy, with short limbs and a 
moderate-sized tail, and living on the ground, or even in 
burrows beneath it. They are connected with the former 
tribe, however, by an elegant little animal termed the 
ground-squirrel, partaking of the habits of both ; this is a 
native of Eastern Europe. A very remarkable kind of 
marmot is one known in North America by the name of 
the prairie-dog or barking-squirrel, on account of its 
voice, which resembles the bark of a small dog. It lives 
in great troops, in immense burrows. More allied to the 
squirrels in the size of their tail and active habits, but 
differing in their dentition, are the Dormice, the structure 
of whose teeth shows them to approximate with the next 
family. They chiefly subsist on vegetable food ; but some 
species of them attack small birds. All the members of 
this family pass the winter in cold climates in a state of 
lethargy, which is most profound in the marmots and 
dormice. 



159. Whai of the marmots? 

8* 



90 ZOOLOGY. 

118. (n.) The family of Murid^: contains the smallest, 
and at the same time the most numerous, of the Mammalia. 
No undomesticated animals are better known than mice 
and rats. Of the common inouse, Cuvier thus concisely 
speaks — "known in all times and in ail places." The 
house rats, abundant in this country, are almost as uni- 
versally diffused ; but the time of their introduction into 
many parts of the globe can be distinctly traced. The 
brown (commonly, but erroneously, called -the Norway) 
rat made its first appearance in Paris about the middle of 
the eighteenth century, and in England not many years 
earlier. It is believed to have originally come from Per- 
sia, where it lives in immense burrows, and is said to have 
arrived in Astracan by swimming across the Volga, after 
an earthquake in 1727. Its astonishing fecundity, its om- 
nivorous habits, the secrecy of its retreats, and the ingenious 
devices to which it has recourse, either to retain its existing 
place of abode or to migrate to a more favourable situation, 
all conduce to keep up its almost overwhelming numbers. 
Where a plentiful supply of animal food is afforded them, 
rats will feed exclusively upon it. The brown rat is now 
speedily replacing the black or old English rat, which is 
becoming rather a rare animal in that country, and which, 
from its smaller size, is an unequal match for the usurper. 
There is reason to believe, however, that even this is not 
a native of England, and that it was introduced from 
France about the middle of the sixteenth century. From 
Europe these two rats (which infest vessels equally with 
houses) have been sent to America, the islands of the Pa- 
cific, and many other places, in some of which they have 
now become a serious inconvenience. The only strictly 
indigenous British species of MuridaB are the harves'- 
mousc and long-tailed fid '-mouse, both of them very 
beautiful little animals, and very interesting to the natural- 
ist, although highly injurious to the agriculturist. A 
great number of species exist in various parts of the world, 
which do not differ widely from each other. 

1 1 i>. The Hamsters have teeth nearly similar to those of 

lf>0. How is the Rat tribe characterize! I 



R0DENTIA THE RATS, BEAVERS, &C. 91 

the rats, but their tails, instead of being long and scaly, are 
short and hairy, and their cheeks are hollowed into pouches 
in which they can stow away a large quantity of grain for 
transport to their nests. They abound in the sandy plains 
of the north-east of Europe, from Germany to Siberia, and 
are very injurious, from the quantity of grain they hoard 
up in their extensive and intricate burrows. They have 
more ferocity than most of the order, and will attack any 
animal that comes in their way. They are believed to feed 
upon birds as well as upon vegetables. Allied to the rats in 
its dentition, and having also some points of resemblance to 
dormice, is the curious genus dipus, or jerboa, the general 
form of whose body, as well as its mode of progression, is 
very similar to that of the kangaroo. The enormous 
length of the hind feet occasioned them to be designated 
two-footed rats by the ancients ; whence their present 
generic name is derived. 

120. (in.) Of the Castorid^e, the beaver is probably 
the type ; but this family contains many genera having a 
close resemblance to the rats. The beaver is distinguished 
from all other rodents by its horizontally flattened tail, 
which is of a nearly oval form, and covered with scales. 
The hind feet are webbed, by means of which and the tail 
these animals obtain considerable swimming powers. 
They chiefly subsist on bark and other hard substances, 
and can fell trees of considerable size, of which they use 
the bark and twigs as food, employing the stems in the 
construction of their remarkable habitations. The flattened 
tail is employed by them as a kind of trowel, with which 
they plaster the walls of their houses. The beavers are 
connected with the previous family by the Arvicolse or 
Voles, many of which bear a strong general resemblance 
to rats, but differ in their dentition. Most of them are partly 
aquatic in their habits ; such is the common water-rat of 
this country, the food of which, like that of the beaver, is 
(contrary to the general opinion) almost exclusively herbivo- 
rous. To this group also belong the lemmings or Scandina- 
vian rats, w T hich are remarkable for their occasional migra- 

161. Name the varieties cited. 



92 ZOOLOGY. 

tions in immense bodies. They are stated to advance in a 
straight line, regardless of rivers and mountains ; and 
while no insurmountable obstacle impedes their progress, 
they devastate the country through which they pass. 
Most of this family lay up a winter store of food, upon 
which they subsist in the intervals of sleep, and do not go 
abroad during that season. 

121. (iv.) The animals which are characteristic forms 
of the family Hystricid^f, are recognised at the first glance 
by the stiff and pointed quills with which they are armed, 
somewhat similar to those of the hedgehogs, but usually 
much larger. Besides the Porcupines and their allies, how- 
ever, to which this description more particularly applies, 
this family contains several forms which connect it with 
the two preceding. The name porcupine is corrupted 
from the French porc-epin, a term expressive of the pig- 
like aspect and grunting voice of these animals, as well 
as of their spiney covering. They live in burrows, and 
have very much the habits of rabbits. The best known 
species inhabits the south of Italy, Sicily, and Spain. It 
is nearly the largest of the Rodentia, measuring almost 
three feet in length. There is an American genus nearly 
allied to the true porcupine, which has a long prehensile 
tail, like that of the opossums, and lives in trees. 

122. (v.) The next family, that of Cavid^e, contains the 
largest-sized animals of this order, although, when com- 
pared with ordinary quadrupeds, they would be termed 
small. They are naturally restricted to tropical America, 
where they replace the hares and rabbits of cold climates. 
But the guinea-pig is now extremely common in Europe, 
and is quite domesticated. The capybara is an inhabitant 
of the sides of nearly all the great rivers of South America, 
and is the largest known animal of the order, being about 
three feet in length, and of the size of the Siamese pig. 
It has a large, thick, and blunt muzzle, is destitute even 
of the rudiments of a tail, and is scantily covered with bristly 
hairs. Its semi-aquatic habits are shown by the webbing of 



162. How is the Beaver 'ribe described ? 

163. Whai of the Porcupines I 



R0DENT1A THfc CAPYBARA, &C. 93 

the feet. By this structure it can both swim and dive with 
much activity. Upon land it makes but little progress, 




The Capybara. 

running badly, and generally diving in the water to avoid 
danger. It lives in small societies, and seems to be a 
nocturnal feeder. Another of the Cavidae is the agouti, 
which is an inhabitant of the Antilles and tropical America. 
It is about the same size as the European hare, and like it 
possesses great length of the hind legs, by which it runs, 
or rather leaps, with considerable swiftness. In regard to 
its food, however, and its manner of feeding, it rather re- 
sembles the squirrel ; preferring nuts to- herbage, and sit- 
ting upon its haunches whilst eating. When angry, it 
stamps with the fore feet, grunts like a young pig, and 
erects the bristly hair of the crupper in the manner of a 
porcupine. 

123. (vi.) The animals of the small family Chixchil- 
lid,e were until recently known only by their skins, 
which constitute an important article of commerce. In 
their general organization they seem intermediate between 
ihe cavies and rabbits, but differ from both of them in 
possessing clavicles. They are all natives of South 



164. Describe the Guinea-pig family. 

165. What variety is named I 



94 ZOOLOGY. 

America, chiefly inhabiting the range of the Andes, and 
they live socially, in extensive burrows. 

124. (vn.) The Lepo'rid^e constitute the last family of 
the Rodentia, and are distinguished from the rest by the 
presence of two small incisors behind the rodent teeth. 
The form and habits of the typical genus, Lepu-s, are 
sufficiently well known in the hare and rabbit of this 
country. A large number of species exist in the different 
parts of the northern hemisphere, and some are inhabitants 
of the arctic regions. There is one species of this country, 
in which the brown fur, that forms its summer coat, 
changes to white at the approach of winter. The hare is 
a ruminating animal, though without the peculiarly com- 
plex stomach of the Ruminantia. The lagomy* or rat-hare 
is a very interesting genus, allied to the hare, but having 
nearly perfect clavicles, and the fore legs almost as long 
as the hind. It is chiefly remarkable for the mode in 
which it lays up its store of winter provisions. It lives 
in solitude or in small societies in the mountainous parts 
of Siberia, and hollows out its burrow amongst stones and 
in the clefts of rocks, and sometimes in the holes of trees. 
About the middle of August these animals collect their 
store of winter provender, which is formed of select herbs, 
and these they bring near their habitation, and spread 
them out to dry like hay. In September, they build up the 
fodder they have collected into heaps or stacks, which 
they place under the rocks, or in other places sheltered 
from the rain or snow. Where many of them have 
laboured together, their stacks are sometimes as high as 
a man, and more than eight feet in diameter. These 
stacks, which consist of the choicest and most succulent 
herbs, are often pilfered by the natives of that part of 
Siberia for the subsistence of their cattle and horses. A 
subterranean gallery leads from the burrow of the lagomys, 
beneath the mass of hay, so that neither frost nor snow 
can interrupt the animal's communication with it. 



166. Describe the Chinchilla group. 

167. What of the Hare family? 



EDENTATA THE ANT-EATERS. 



95 



Order VIII. — Eden' at a, [or toothless tribe.] 

125. The animals composing the order Edentata cannot 
be described by any general positive characters which 
separate them from other groups ; for there is a consider- 
able dissimilarity in the entire structure and habits of the 
different species. The chief point of agreement amongst 
them is a negative one — the absence of incisor teeth, and 
the t Tinination of the extremities in long claws. These 
claws are usually few in number, and partially embrace 
the extremities of the bones from which they are prolonged, 
so that each forms a kind of pointed hoof; and we have 
thus an approximation towards the unguiculated division 
of the Mammalia. The order may be separated into two 
distinct groups ; one consisting of the Edentata-proper, 
and containing the Ant-eaters, Armadillos, &c, all of 
which are insectivorous ; the other, denominated Tardi- 
grada, from the slowness of movement of the animals 
composing it, and containing the Sloths. 

128. (i.) The true Edentata are distinguished, like other 
insectivorous Mammalia, by their pointed muzzle. This is 
particularly remarkable in the ,%nf-ea'ers, which are pecu- 
liar to the warm and temperate regions of South America. 
They are destitute of any teeth ; but possess a very long 
thread-like tongue, which they insinuate into ant-hills and 
.he nests of the termites (or white ants), whence these 
insects are withdrawn by being entangled in the viscid 
saliva that covers it. Their fore-nails, strong and trench- 
ant, enable them to tear open these nests, and also furnish 
them with an effective means of defence. These animals 
are well covered with hair ; but the Pangolins, which 
resemble them in being destitute of teeth, and in the mode 
in which they obtain their food, are covered with large 
scales, which they elevate, as the hedgehog does its 
spines, when they wish to defend themselves against an 
enemy. These occur only on the old continent, where 
they represent the Ant-eaters of the new. 



168. How is the toothless order divided ? 

169. What of the Ant-eater family ? 



90 ZOOLOGY. 

127. Most of the other true Edentata are burrowing 
animals, and are covered with a dense armour, composed 
of hard scales arranged in a tesselated manner, or fitt< d 
together like stones in a pavement. Between the differ- 
ent bands of these, there are narrow rings of membrane, 
which allow the body to bend. They have claws adapted 
for digging, seven or eight cylindrical molars on each 
side, and a tongue but little extensible. Of these animals 
the Armadillos are the chief, and are the forms best 




Povou or Six-banded Armadillo. 



known. They subsist partly on vegetables and partly 
on insects and carcasses. Some of them appear to 
prefer putrefying animal matter ; and many are noctur- 
nal feeders. They are all confined to South America, 
where also is found another extraordinary animal, the 
chlamyphorus, which presents a remarkable mixture of 
the characters of different tribes. It has a firm tesselated 
shield, like the armadillo; but this only protects the 
upper surface of the body, to which it is rather loosely 
attached. The sides and under surface of the body are 
covered with fine silky hair, like that of the mole. In 
the form of its skeleton it has points of analogy with the 
beaver, the mole, the sloth, the ant-eaters, the Monotre- 
tnata, the Ruminantia, besides the armadillos, to which its 
relationship is nearest. The hinder part of the body has 
a remarkable squareness, as if it had been suddenly ter- 
minated ; whence its specific name, truncatus. The 

170. Describe tlie variety hero cited. 



EDENTATA THE SLOTH. 



97 



oryctrropus, termed the Cape ant-eater or ground-hog by 
the Dutch colonists, is a genus of this division, connecting 
the ant-eaters and armadillos ; having the extensible 
tongue of the former, and subsisting on the same food, 
with the molar teeth and -burrowing habits of the latter. 
128. (n.) The animals belonging to the family Tardi- 
grada [from the Latin, tardus, slow, and gradus, step] 
are at once known from the true Edentata by the peculiar 
shortness of the muzzle. The name of the family is 
derived from that commonly applied to the animals com- 
posing it. In the Sloths, according to Cuvier, "nature 
seems to have amused herself with producing something 
imperfect and grotesque." And if we consider the pecu- 
liarities of their organization in reference to the ordinary 
habits of mammiferous animals, this appears to be true. 
Both the fore and hind legs, by their form and proportions, 
and the manner in which they are joined to the body, are 
quite incapacitated from acting in a perpendicular direc- 
tion, and of supporting the body from below; so that, 




Two-toed Sloth. 

when the animal is placed on the floor, his belly touches 
the ground. Moreover, he has no soles to his feet, and 
his claws are very sharp, long, and curved backwards; 
so that he has no firm support, and can only move for- 
wards by laying hold of some fixed object, and dragging 
himself on by his hooked claws. But when placed on a 

9 



98 ZOOLOGY. 

branch, his aspect is altogether different. In the wild 
state, the sloth passes his whole life on trees, and never 
leaves them but through force or accident, or to pass from 
one to the other, which in the densely tangled forests of 
South America, where alone it exists, is not frequently 
necessary. But, though appointed to spend its whole life 
in trees, it is not adapted to live on the branches, like the 
squirrel or monkey, but under them. It moves suspended 
from them; it eats suspended from them; it sleeps sus- 
pended from them. And, when its structure is considered 
in its adaptation to this extraordinary position, it is seen 
to be most admirably devised to meet the wants of the 
animal. The muscular system seems capable of pro- 
longed action without effort ; and this may perhaps be 
aided by the peculiar disposition of the arteries already 
noticed as possessed by the lori. Th sloth remains upon 
a tree until it has stripped it of every leaf, and then it 
proceeds to another. It has been observed that, in the 
more open places, where the trees are less contiguous, the 
sloths take advantage of windy weather to effect their 
transits, when the boughs are blown together and com- 
mingled. The peculiar conformation of these animals 
ought, therefore, no more to excite our pity and compas- 
sion than the circumstance of fishes being destitute of 
legs. Their elevated habitation removes them out of the 
reach of the carnivorous animals, by which the race might 
otherwise be extirpated. 

129. There have been found in South America — the 
country to which the existing Edentata are almost con- 
fined — remains of some enormous extinct animals, belong- 
ing evidently to the same group. Of one of these, the 
megatherium, nearly the whole skeleton has now been 
studied by comparing different imperfect specimens ; and 
there can be little doubt that it belonged to a gigantic ani- 
mal intermediate between the sloths and ant-eaters. Its 
haunches must have been more than five feet wide ; and 
its Dody fourteen feet long and eight high. Its feet were 



171. How are the Sloth family described? 

172. .Name some ot 'their remarkable traits. 



EDENTATA — EXTINCT FOSSIL SPECIES. 99 

a yard long, and terminated by gigantic claws. Its whole 
structure seems to have been adapted to digging the earth 
in search of the succulent roots which probably constituted 
great part of its food. Another extinct animal of the same 
description is known by little else than its claws, and frag- 
ments of bones and teeth. From the form of the claw, the 
mtlonyx (as it has been named) was at first supposed to 
be a carnivorous animal ; but Cuvier satisfactorily proved 
it to belong to the Edentata. It seems nearly allied to the 
megatherium. Remains of tessellated bony armour have 
also been found, which indicate the former existence of a 
large animal allied to the Armadillos, to which the name 
glyptodun has been given ; and other remains of gigantic 
ant-eaters have lately been discovered in the same locality. 
130. The Edentata terminate the series of the ungui- 
cula'e I or clawed true Mammalia ; and, as has been just 
seen, there are some among them with the claws so large, 
and so enveloping the ends of the toes, and these reduced 
to so small a number, as to approximate to the nature of 
hoofs. Nevertheless, they have still the faculty of bend- 
ing their toes round various objects, and of grasping with 
greater or less force. The entire absence of this faculty 
characterizes the hoofed animals. They use their feet 
on'y as supports, and the forearm has not the power of 
rotation, its two bones being frequently consolidated into 
one, or one of them greatly enlarged at the expense of the 
other, like those of the leg of man and of most Vertebrata. 
The hoofed animals in no instance possess clavicles, and 
they are entirely vegetable feeders. Their forms and 
mode of life present, therefore, much less variety than is 
found in the unguiculated animals, and they can hardly 
be divided into more than two orders — those which ru- 
minate, and those which do not. The former constitute a 
very natural and easily circumscribed group, the animals 
which compose it bearing a strong general resemblance 
to each other, and being easily distinguished from other 
groups. The latter contains a number of different forms, 



173. What extinct animals of this group ? 

174. Describe their structure. 



103 ZOOLOGY. 

the connection of which with one another by any very im- 
portant peculiarities common to all is not very obvious. 
On account of the general thickness of their skins, they 
are called Pachydermata. 

Order IX. — Pachydermata, [or thick-skinned tribe.] 

131. The order Pachydermata, [from the Greek, pachus, 
thick, and derma, skin,} consisting of hoofed animals 
which do not ruminate, may be divided into three groups, 
each of which show a tendency towards some other order. 
The first of these, Proboscidea, containing only the ele- 
phant and its extinct congeners, [from the Latin, con, with, 
and genus, kind, of the same genus,] approaches in seve- 
ral particulars to the Rodentia. In both we find two large 
front teeth developed at the expense of the rest, and the 
grinders are formed of parallel plates of enamel and bony 
matter. There are also many points of resemblance in 
the form of the bones, and more particularly in those of 
the extremities. For the elephant has not a complete 
hoof, but five toes to each foot, which are very distinct in 
the skeleton ; but being enveloped in a callous skin, which 
surrounds them all, the only external indication of their 
separate condition is in the nails at their extremities. The 
second group, that of true Pachydermata, contains those 
which have four, three, or two toes to their feet. Those 
in which the toes make even numbers, as the Suid,e, or 
Pig kind, have feet somewhat cleft, and approximate to 
the Ruminantia in various parts of the skeleton, and even 
in the complication of the stomach. Of the others, which 
have not cloven feet, some approach the Proboscidea, with 
which they are connected by forms now extinS, but of 
which the bony remains are sufficient to determine their 
character. The third group of Pachydermata, the Soli- 
dungula, consists of quadrupeds with only one apparent 
toe, and a single hoof to each foot, as in the horse* These, 
also, in their general form and manner of life, approach 



17"). i to wha groups is the thick-skinned order divided? 

176. What species belongs to the first division ( 

177. (iivc an example of the 2d and 3d. 



PACHYDERM AT \ THE ELEPHANT, MAMMOTH, &C. 101 

th Ruminantia, with which they are particularly connect- 
ed bv the camel and an animal now extinct. Another 
group should also probably be associated with this order, 
holding the same rank in it as the Amphibia or Seal tribe 
among ^e Carnivora. This is the small family of aquatic 
herbivorous animals, termed Manatid^e, which were 
placed by Cuvier among the Cetacea, but which differ 
from the true whales in several important particulars, and 
are found to be closely connected with the hippopotamus 
[or river horse] by links now extinct. 

1*2. (i.) The first group, Proboscidea, [from the Greek 
pmbrskis, a trunk or proboscis,] contains only one living 
genus, the elephant, of which the mammoth, which has 
become extinct within a comparatively recent period, is 
an allied species. Another extinct animal of this group 
is the mastodon, which, in the conformation of its teeth 
appears to have some affinity with the hippopotamus. 
All these animals agreed in possessing a pair of enormous 
tusks or front teeth, and a very elongated nose or pro- 
boscis ; and it is probable that this last organ was formed, 
as in the elephant, to answer the purposes of a hand, lay- 
ing hold of large objects by coiling itself round them, and 
of small by means of the 
finger-like organ at its ex- 
tremity. The magnitude of 
the sockets necessary to hold 
the tusks renders the upper 
jaw so high that the nostrils, 
which are prolonged through 
the trunk, are placed in the 
skeleton near the top of the Elephant, 

face. By means of its trunk, the elephant not only lays 
hold of its food, but sucks up its drink, which it causes to 
fill its capacious nostrils, and then discharges, by bending 
its trunk, into its mouth. By this admirable organ, the 
shortness of the neck, rendered necessary by the weight 
of the head, is fully compensated. The cavity for the 



178. What animals are included in the first group ? 

179. Describe the proboscis and its use. 

9* 




IC2 ZOOLOGY. 

brain by no means corresponds with the external form of 
the skull; for, in order, as it would seem, to give a larger 
surface for the attachment of the muscles of the trunk, the 
outer layer of bone is widely separated from the inner, 
and between the two are a number of large bony cells. 

133. In none of the Proboscidea has the lower jaw of 
the adult any front teeth. The arrangement of the 
grinders differs in the various species ; but in all they 
are composed of alternating plates of hard enamel and 
softer bony matter, cemented together by a third sub- 
stance, which is termed the cortical, [from the Latin 
cortex, bark.] These grinders are in constant progress 
of renewal ; but they succeed each other, not by rising 
from below upwards, as in man, but by being pushed 
forwards from behind, in proportion as the tooth before 
each is worn away. There is never more than one 
perfect molar on each side ; but in proportion to the age 
of the animal there may be two, three, four, or more, 
the front ones being the worn-down remains of those at 
first formed. It is stated that the molars are thus re- 
newed eight times. The tusks, however, are only changed 
once ; but, like the cutting-teeth of the Rodents, they are 
constantly being renewed at the roots. Two species of 
elephants exist at the present day, both of which inhabit 
tropical climates, one in Asia, the other in Africa. Re- 
mains of the mammoth are chiefly found in the north of 
America and of Siberia ; and, from a nearly perfect speci- 
men, which was discovered frozen in the ice near the 
mouth of the river Lena, it appears that this species was 
adapted to live in cold climates — the skin being densely 
covered with hair of two kinds. The habits of the ele- 
phant are sufficiently well known to render it unnecessary 
here to dwell on them. Its food is entirely vegetable ; 
and in its undomesticated state, it consists chiefly of the 
leaves and young branches of trees, and of the long herb- 
age of the ground, both of which it gathers with its trunk. 
The tusks serve not only as weapons of offence and de- 
fence, but to root up small trees and tear down cross 

180. What variety of structure is cited ? 



PACHYDERM AT A THE PIG TRIBE. 



103 



branches, either to obtain their leaves or to make a pass- 
age for the bulky body of the animal through the tangled 
for st. 

134. (n.) Of the true Pachydermata, the first family is 
that of Suid,e, [from the Latin 9U8 % a hog,] the Pig kind. 
It is characterized by the peculiar thickness of the skin, 
and by the presence of four toes on each foot. They 
have three sorts of teeth in each jaw ; the canines are 
usually long, and project forward as tusks ; the anterior 
molars are more or less narrow and conical, whilst the 
posterior are tuberculated. The food is principally vege- 
table, but admits of considerable variation. The domes- 
ticated pig is well known to be quite an omnivorous 
animal. In the true pigs, the foot has two toes furnished 
with large hoofs, and two much shorter ones that scarcely 
touch the ground. The wihl-boar % which abounds in 
some parts of the continent of Europe, is well known to 
be a very ferocious animal ; and the domesticated race 
which is derived from it often exhibits indications of the 
same character. One of the most curious animals of this 
tribe is the babyrouzba, a native of the Indian archipelago; 




Babyroussa. 



the upper canines of which are very long, and grow spi- 
rally upwards and backwards. These serve as defensive 
weapons of a very powerful description, inflicting severe 
lacerations by an upward stroke of the head. The pec- 



181. Describe ihe Pig tribe. 

182. How are they diversified ? 



101 ZOOLOGY. 

caries of South America want the external toe, and the 
central ones are partly joined together, as in the Rumi- 
nants ; to which the complex structure of their stomachs 
also exhibits their affinity. 

135. With the family of Suidae is probably to be placed 
the hippopotamus, [from the Greek ippos, a horse, and 
potamos, a river,] or river-horse, which seems in many 
respects intermediate between the pig and the elephant ; 
whilst its aquatic habits, and the conformation by which it 
is adapted to these, approximate it to the Dugongs. Only 
one species is known, which is now confined to the rivers 
of middle and south Africa. But for its short, thick, and 
very blunt muzzle, it might be compared to a gigantic pig; 
the body is extremely massive, and the legs so short that 
the belly almost touches the ground ; and it is destitute 
of any covering but a few weak and scattered bristles. 
The canine teeth are long; the upper ones straight, and 
the lower curved backwards, so that they rub against each 
other. Although ferocious, or rather courageous, when 
attacked, these unwieldy inhabitants of the waters are in 
their nature shy, and feed entirely on roots and other 
vegetables, seeming to prefer those which are partially 
decomposed by the action of the water. 

136. (in.) The second family of true Pachydermata, 
to which the name of Tapirid^:, or the Tapir tribe, may 
be given, resembles the first in the thickness of its skin, 
but differs in the arrangement of the toes, of which there 
are only three on each hind foot, and sometimes also in 
front, without any central cleft. There is considerable 
variation in regard to the teeth; but the whole family is 
exclusively herbivorous. No members of it exist in Eu- 
rope at the present time ; but fossil remains of very large 
species are abundant in some localities. The tapir of 
America is about the size of a small ass, with a brown 
and almost naked skin, a short tail, and fleshy neck that 
forms a crest at the nape. It is common in humid places 
and along the rivers, and its flesh is eaten. The nose 



183 What of the river-horse? 
184. Describe ihe Tapir tribe. 



PACHYDERM AT A TAPIR TRIRi: — RHINOCEROS. 



105 



assumes the form of a short fleshy trunk — the rudiment, 
as it were, of that of the elephant. Other species have 
been recently discovered of a larger size ; one of which 
has the bones of the nose still more elongated, approaching 
a very remarkable fossil ge- 
nus, the pafzeotheriitm, [from 
the Greek palseos, ancient, 
and t her ion, a wild beast.] 
This seems to have been an 
animal nearly allied to the 
Tapirs ; remains of several 
species, varying in size from 
a rhinoceros to a small sheep, 
have been found in the gypsum 
fresh water deposits of the Isle 
places. 

137. To this family belongs the rhinoceros, [from the 
Greek rin, a nose, and keros, a horn,] which is remark- 




Form of Palaotherium. 

quarries of Paris, the 
of Wight, and other 




African Rhinoceros. 



able for its large size, and for the kind of horn, composed 
of a solid fibrous substance, resembling agglutinated hairs, 
which is supported on an arch formed by the nasal bones. 
Several species exist in different parts of the tropical por- 



l^S. What fospii species is included? 



10.1 ZOOLOGY. 

lion of the Old World. They are naturally stupid and 
ferocious, frequenting marshy places, and subsisting on 
herbage and the branches of trees. In some species a 
second horn exists behind the first. The upper lip is 
generally elongated, and has some power of prehension. 
Rhinoceros' bones have been disinterred in many parts 
of Europe. There is a curious little animal, the kyrax, 
which is about the size of a rabbit, and was formerly 
placed among the Rodentia ; it is, however, little else 
than a rhinoceros in miniature, without the horn. It is 
not uncommon in rocky places in Africa and Syria, and 
one species ascends trees. It is probably the animal 
spoken of in Proverbs xxx. 26, as the cony, 

138. (iv.) The third group of Pachydermata, the Soli- 
pungula, contains only one family, that of the EquidjE, or 
Horse tribe. Though there is only one apparent toe and 
single hoof to each foot, there are appendages beneath 
the skin which represent two lateral toes. The well- 
known animals of this tribe, the horse, ass, zebra, quagga, 
onagga, and dzt ggiteiai, are commonly regarded as be- 
longing to but one genus ; but the first of these is probably 
to be separated from the rest, from the circumstance of its 
tail being wholly clothed with long hair, while that of the 
rest has long hair only towards the tip. On this point, 
however, there is much uncertainty, arising from our igno- 
rance as to the original stock of the horse. In all the in- 
stances in which we at present know horses to exist in a 
wild state, the race appears to have been originally derived 
from a domesticated stock. This is certainly the case 
with regard to the wild horses which now spread over the 
plains of South America, all of which are descended from 
those first introduced there by the Spaniards. 

1^9. All the animals just named agree in their dentition. 
There are six incisors to each jaw, which, during youth, 
have their crowns furrowed by a groove, and six molars 
on each side, above and below, with square crowns, 
marked, by plates of enamel which penetrate them, with 



186. What of the rhinoceros? 

187. How is the Horse tribe diversified ? 






PACHYDERMATA THE SEA-COW. 107 

four crescents. The males have, in addition, two small 
canines in their upper jaw, and sometimes in both ; these 
are always wanting in the females. Between the canines 
and the first molar there is a wide space, which corre- 
sponds with the angle of the lips, where the Ml is placed, 
by which alone man has been enabled to subdue these 
powerful quadrupeds. None of the species of this family 
are indigenous to America. 

140. (v.) The animals associated in the family Mana- 
tidfe, may be considered as Pachydermata still more 
adapted than the hippopotamus to an aquatic residence. 
In their teeth and general organization they bear a close 
correspondence to this order ; and the fish-like form which 
they exhibit is scarcely a greater variation than is seen 
in the order Carnivora. The posterior extremities of these 
animals are entirely wanting, as in the true Cetacea. The 
trunk is continued by a thick tail, which terminates in a 
horizontal cartilaginous fin ; and the bones of the anterior 
extremities are arranged in a flattened form, so that the 
skin which includes them all has a fin-like surface. They 
act rather as steerers (like the lateral fins of fishes) than 
to propel the animals through the water, which is chiefly 
done by the tail. They not unfrequently leave the water 
to seek their food on shore. Although the nostrils in the 
skeleton open near the summit of the head, as in the ele- 
phant, the orifices of the skin are pierced at the extremi- 
ties of the muzzle. They have usually no hair on the 
general surface, but possess mustaches like the seals and 
morses. One species, however, the stellerine, is entirely 
covered with a thick rugged cuirass, formed of aggluti- 
nated hairs, like the hoofs of some ungulated quadrupeds. 
The type of this family is the manati, which grows 
to the length of fifteen feet, and frequents the mouths 
of the African and American rivers. It is called sea- 
cow, and its flesh is eaten. Vestiges of nails are 
visible on the edges of the swimming paws, which it em- 
ploys with some address in carrying its young. The 



188. What of their teeth? 

189. What other family of this group ? 



108 ZOOLOGY. 

dugong, inhabiting the Indian Ocean, differs a little from 
the manati in its dentition. 

141. This group is connected with the true Pachyder- 
mata by several fossil genera, but particularly by a very 
remarkable one recently discovered, the dinotherium, 
[from the Greek dien^s, terrible, and theiron^ wild beast.] 
This must have been the largest of the Mammalia not 
strictly aquatic, its total length being probably eighteen 
feet. It blends the characters of the tapir and ele- 
phant with that of the Cetacea, having probably pos- 
sessed a trunk and an enormous pair of tusks, directed 
downwards, though fixed in the lower jaw, and having 
been deficient in posterior extremities. The tusks, like 
those of the morse, were probably employed in raking up 
vegetable matter from the bottoms of the rivers and lakes 
it seems to have inhabited. 



Order X. — Ruminantia, [or cud-chewing animals.] 

142. The order Ruminantia is perhaps the most natu- 
ral and best determined of the whole class, for all the spe- 
cies which compose it seem constructed, as it were, upon 
the same model, the camels alone presenting any consider- 
able exceptions to the general characters of the group. 
The first of these characters is the entire absence of incisor 
teeth from the upper jaw ; whilst the lower appears to 
possess eight : of these, however, the two outer ones are 
really canines which have taken the form of incisors, so 
that the number of the true incisors is six, as in the other 
viviparous Mammalia. The molars are almost always six 
in number, both above and below, and have their crowns 
marked with two double crescentic ridges of enamel, which 
aid in triturating the food. The feet are each terminated 
by two toes and two hoofs, which present a flat surface 
to each other, appearing as though a single hoof had been 
cleft ; hence the names that have been applied to these 
animals, of cloven-footed, &c. Behind the hoof there are 

190. What recent fossil genus is nimed ? 

191. Describe the cud -chewing order. 






RUMINAXTIA. 10!) 

always two small spurs, which are the vestiges of lateral 
toes. 

143. The name of the order intimates the singular faculty 
possessed by these animals, of masticating their food a 
second time, or " chewing the cud." This faculty depends 
on the structure of their stomachs, which are four in num- 
ber. The food which is cropped by the incisor teeth is 
swallowed almost without mastication, and is moistened 
in the stomach ; and after being compressed into little pel- 
lets or ciils, is returned to the mouth to be rechewed while 
the animal is at rest. When this operation has been per- 
formed, the food is transmitted to the true digestive sto- 
mach. This remarkable provision has a very interesting 
adaptation to the general structure and characters of these 
animals. The Ruminantia, taken as a group, are timid, 
and destitute of powerful means of defence against their 
foes. They rather seek their safety in flight when at- 
tacked. Their food, consisting chiefly of the grasses of 
various kinds, requires to be thoroughly masticated before 
it can be properly digested. When feeding on the pastures 
they frequent they are liable to many alarms ; and if they 
were compelled to spend a considerable time in masticating 
their food before swallowing it, they would often be in danger 
of starvation, by being obliged to leave their pasture before 
their wants were supplied. But by their power of subse- 
quent rumination, they are enabled to dispense almost en- 
tirely with the first mastication, and to feed with compara- 
tive quickness. They convey a store of food into the 
first stomach or paunch, as the monkey into its cheek- 
pouches ; and then, retiring to a secure place, they pre- 
pare it for digestion at their leisure. 

144. The whole structure of these animals corresponds 
with the account just given of their habits. Their legs 
are long in proportion to their body, and the spinal column 
is very flexible ; both which conditions are favourable to 
great activity of motion. They are endowed with a very 
acute sense of smell, which seems to be their guide in the 



192. How is their peculiarity explained ? 

193. What peculiarity in their structure I 

10 



110 ZOOLOGY. 

selection of their food. Their ears are placed far back, 
and are very movable ; and these are well adapted to 
catch sounds from behind, so as to warn the animals of 
danger whilst feeding. The eyes are placed at the sides 
of the head, and the pupil is in the form of a horizontal 
oblong; so that the range of vision along the surface of 
the earth is very great, and the animals can easily look 
behind them when pursued. Their means of defence 
consists in the use of their horns to gore their enemy, and 
of their hind feet to kick it ; but it is only when peculiarly 
courageous that single animals of this species will act on 
the offensive, or stand on the defensive, against others 
of proportional size and strength. 

145. The Ruminants, of all animals, are those which 
are most useful to man. They supply him with a large 
proportion of his animal food. Some serve him as beasts 
of burden ; others furnish him with their milk, their tallow, 
leather, horns, and other useful products. 

146. The great resemblance which exists among the 
very numerous members of this order, renders the distri- 
bution of them into families, each characterized by some 
important peculiarity, a matter of some difficulty. These 
subdivisions are, probably, best erected upon the character 
of the horns, which are possessed by the males of all the 
species in their natural state, excepting such as (like the 
camel) connect this order with other groups. The horns 
are essentially bony prominences from the fore part of the 
skull. In some Ruminants, commonly termed cattle, such 
as oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, these prominences are 
covered with an elastic sheath, formed as it were of ag- 
glutinated hair, which continues to increase by layers dur- 
ing life. It is to the substance of this sheath that the name 
of Aon? is commonly applied, whilst the bony support is 
termed the core ; this rrows during life, and never falls. 
In the giraffe, again, the bony prominences are coven J 
with a hairy skin, which is continuous with that of the 
head ; and here, too, the bony part of the horn is perma- 

1 94. Of what uses are these to man ? 

195. What variety is the basis of sub-division ? 






RriMlNANTIA. Ill 

n -rit. But in the deer, these prominences, which are covered 
for a while with a hairy skin (commonly termed the 
velvet), like the other parts of the head, have at their base 
a ring of bony tubercles, which periodically enlarge, and 
compress the nutritive vessels of the horns. These ac- 
cordingly die, and fall from the skull, and the animal re- 
mains defenceless. Others, however, are reproduced, 
generally larger than before, which are destined to un- 
dergo the same fate. These horns, periodically renewed, 
are usually styled antlers. 

147. The Ruminants with horny sheaths to the bony 
prominences, may be divided into three families. Ax- 
telopid^e, or Antelope tribe, characterized by the lightness 
of their forms and the activity of their movements, and by 
the solidity of the bony core. Caprid^e, or Goat tribe ; 
in these the bony core is partly occupied with cells, and 
the general form approaches that of the Ox tribe ; but the 
horns are directed upwards and backwards. Bovid.e, or 
Ox tribe: these have the horns directed upwards and 
forwards ; the form is robust, and the movements heavy. 
The division of the Ruminants in which the horns are 
periodically cast off, constitutes only one family, that of 
Cervid^e, the Stag tribe. Another family, including only 
the giraffes, and named Camelopard.e, is characterized 
by the shortness and permanence of the horns, which are 
covered with a skin. Of the Ruminants without horns 
there are two distinct families — the Moschid^e, or Musk 
Deer, which are remarkable for their elegance and light- 
ness, and differ but little from the rest of the order save in 
the absence of horns; and the Camelidje, or Camel tribe, 
which in their dentition and in the structure of the extremi- 
ties, exhibit a transition to the Pachydermata. 

148. (i.) The family Antelopid.e, remarkable for the 
s'enderness of form and swiftness of foot of the animals 
composing it, contains above seventy well-ascertained 
species bearing a strong general resemblance to each other. 
Most of these are natives of Africa ; a few species, how- 
ever, inhabit Asia ; a still smaller number exist in Ame- 



196. Into what families arc they divided } 



112 



ZOOLOGY. 



rica ; and one only, the chamois, now remains in Europe. 
Among these numerous species we meet with forms that 
remind us of the other families of the Ruminantia — the 
ox, goat, stag, &c. They generally associate in large 
herds, which migrate together in search of pastures. A 
species well known to the colonists of South Africa is 
the spring-bok ; which occasionally visits their cultivated 
iands, during seasons of drought, in innumerable herds, 
causing devastation wherever they pass. The antelopes 
may probably be regarded as the types of the Ruminantia, 
exhibiting the peculiar characters of the order in the 
most remarkable degree. They are extremely vigilant 
and timid : and the speed of the swiftest species surpasses 




Spring-bok Antelope. 

that of every other mammiferous animal. Those which 
are adapted to live on rocks and mountains exhibit the 
most remarkable agility, and fearlessness of those dangers 
which their habits would seem to involve ; they walk 
with perfect composure along the giddy brinks of the most 
awful precipices, climb and descend with wonderful care 
and precision, and leap up or down to the smallest surface 
that will contain their collected feet, with perfect firmness; 
and yet they are so fearful of any supposed enemy, that 
it is difficult to get within gunshot of them. Allied to the 
antelopes is a very curious genus, the gnu, which at first 






197. Describe the antelopes. 



RUMINANTIA THE GOAT AND OX TRIBE. 113 

Bight seems to be a monstrous being, compounded of parts 
of different animals. It has the body and crupper of 
a small horse, covered with long hair ; the tail fur- 
nished with long white hairs like that of a horse ; and 
on the neck a beautiful flowing mane. Its horns resemble 
those of the Cape buffalo ; and its legs are as slender 
and light as those of a stag. It inhabits Southern 
Africa. 

149. (n.) The family of Caprid^e [from the Latin, 
copra, a goat] is connected with the last by many ante- 
lopes, which, like the chamois, approach the goats in 
form. It includes only the goafs and sheep. The origi- 
nal stock of the domestic breeds of the former appears to 
be indigenous to Persia, where it inhabits the mountains 
in large troops. The goats of Angora, Thibet, &c, ce- 
lebrated for the fine quality of their hair, are no more 
than varieties of the common species. The ibex, which 
inhabits the mountains of the Old World, and especially 
the Caucasian chain, is distinguished by the size and 
strength of its horns. It is said that this animal fear- 
lessly precipitates itself down precipices, always falling 
on its horns, the elasticity of which secures it from 
injury. The sheep appear to have extremely little real 
difference from the goats : a large number of races 
exist, the relation of which to each other is uncertain ; 
and there is doubt as to the original stock of the whole. 
Of the domestication of this animal we have an earlier 
record than of any other. 

150. (m.) The species of the family BovidjE, [from 
the Latin bos, bo vis, an ox,] or Ox tribe, are comparatively 
few. They are all large animals, with a broad muzzle, 
heavy and massive body, and stout limbs. Of the ori- 
ginal stock of the domestic ox we have no certainty, since, 
as in the case of horses, the existing races of wild cattle 
are probably all descended from those which have been 
at some period subservient to man. Of all the animals 



198. What species are rvmed ? 

199. What ot the Gnu genus ? 

200. How are >he Goa lamilv divided? 

10* 



114 ZOOLOGY 

which have been reduced to his service, the ox is, with- 
out exception, that to which he is most indebted, for the 
extent and variety of his means of usefulness. The uni- 
versal utility of the animal appears to have been very 
soon detected ; and we find, consequently, that its domes- 
tication soon followed that of sheep, and that it is men- 
tioned in the most ancient records as a servant of man, 
long before either the horse or dog are noticed. The 
ancient accounts of the urus or wild-ox declare it to have 




Brahmin Ox. 

been an animal of great size and fierceness, with large 
spreading horns ; and bones are found in the most recent 
deposits, both in this country and on the continent, 
which correspond with that description. Many races or 
breeds of oxen exist in different parts of the world, which 
were probably all descendants from one stock, and yet 
differ considerably from one another. Most of those in- 
habiting the torrid zone have a lump of fat upon the 
shoulders, which increases in size and proportion to the 
abundance of their food. This is especially remarkable 
in the Indian or Brahmin-bull, which, being held sacred 

201 What of the ^ x tribe? 



RUMINANTIA THE BISON. 



115 



by the Hindoos, is supplied with food in grod* prorusion, 
and leads an indolent life. When left to themselves, their 
form changes ; they become less bulky and more active, 
and the hump, in particular, greatly diminishes. Some 
of the tropical races of oxen are no larger than a 
hog. 

151. Amongst the undomesticated species of this family, 
which have all a strong general resemblance to each 
other, and are the most powerful and savage animals of 
the Avhole order, may be noticed the European bison, 
which was formerly spread over Europe, but is now re- 
stricted to Lithuania and the Caucasian region ; the Ame- 
rican bison, commonly called buffalo, which inhabits all 
the temperate parts of North America; the Indian buffalo, 




Cape Buffalo. 



of which there are several different races (in one, the horns 
include a space of ten feet from tip to tip), of which some 
have been domesticated ; the Cape buffalo, an extremely 



202. Describe the varieties of this family. 

203. What of the bison and buffaloes ? 



1 16 ZOOLOGY. 

ferocious animal with large horns, first directed down- 
wards so as nearly to cover the forehead, inhabiting- the 
woods of CafTraria ; and the musk-ox, a species inhabit- 
ing the coldest regions of North America, with short legs, 
and long hair reaching the ground, which diffuses more 
strongly than the rest the musky odour common to the 
whole genus, and which is particularly noticeable in the 
European bison. 

152. (iv.) The family Cervid^e, [from the Latin cervus 
a stag,] or Stag tribe, includes, like that of antelopes, a large 
number of species differing but little amongst each other, 
very widely diffused over the earth's surface, and easily 
separated from others by the character of the horns. With 
the exception of the reindeer, however, the female is des- 
titute of horns, save in a few rare individual cases, ana- 
logous to those in which the hen assumes the plumage 
of the cock bird. The substance of the horns, when com- 
pletely developed, is that of a dense bone, without pores or 
internal cavity ; the figure varies greatly according to the 
species and even in the same individual at different ages. 
These animals are extremely fleet, and live mostly in forests, 
where they feed on grass, the leaves and buds of trees, &c. 

153. This- very extensive genus may be subdivided 
into sections, according to the form of the antlers. In 
some species they are wholly or partially flattened. This 
is the case, for example, with the elk, one of the largest 
existing species, which lives in troops in the marshy 
forests of the north of both continents. It is as large as 
a horse, and sometimes larger. The antlers of the male, 
at first dagger-shaped, and then divided into narrow slips, 
assume, at the age of five years, the form of a triangular 
blade, with tooth-like projections on its outer edge. These 
increase with age ; so that the horns have at last fourteen 
branches proceeding from each expanded portion, and 
weigh fifty or sixty pounds. To this group also belongs 
the reindeer, so serviceable to the Laplanders, which is 
the only species properly domesticated, though others 



204. Describe the Slag rribe. 
2o.). liuw are .in be divided ? 






RUMIJSAM1A STAG AM) CAMELOPARD. 117 

are doubtless susceptible of being so. The fallgtr-ieer, 
now naturalized in this country, but probably introduced 
from the south of Europe, or even originally a native of 
Barbary or Western Asia, is another species of this group. 
The remains of a gigantic species of deer, belonging to 
the same section, are frequently found in pi at bogs, and 
other recent deposits in this country, and more especially 
in Ireland, whence the name Irish elk has been given it. 
Judging from specimens of which the greater part of the 
bones have been discovered, it must have stood more than 
six feet high, and have been nine feet Jong ; but there is 
no doubt, from the dimensions of many of the horns which 
are preserved (one pair measuring thirteen feet between 
the tips), that this is under the average size of the 
race. 

154. The species with round antlers are more numer- 
ous ; those of temperate climates change colour, more or 
less, with the seasons. The common stag, or red deer, 
is the best known of these, being indigenous to the forests 
of all Europe and of the temperate parts of Asia. The 
Canadian stag, or wapiti, the elk of the Anglo-Americans, 
is a fourth larger. There is also another species, inhabit- 
ing Virginia and the central parts of North America, 
which is smaller than the European stag, and is known as 
the deer. A large number of species are indigenous in 
central and southern Asia, of which some have been natu- 
ralized elsewhere. 

155. (v.) Of the family CamelopardjE [from the Greek 
kamelos, a camel, and pardalis, a leopard] only one species 
was for a long time known to exist ; but there are probably 
two or even three kinds of giraffe, all of which are natives 
of Africa, mostly frequenting the borders of the deserts. 
Its remarkable form, depending chiefly on the great length 
of its neck and forelegs, is familiar to every one. In its 
general structure, however, it closely resembles the deer, 
differing from them in the permanence of the horns. It 
has also some points of affinity to the camels, especially 



206. What variety in the antlers? 

207. How are they diversified ? 



113 ZOOLOGY. 

in the length of its neck, the existence of callosities, or 
hard surfaces, on the breast and knees, and the absence 
of the small spurious hoofs. It is the tallest of all animals, 
its head being frequently raised eighteen fret from the 
ground. Its disposition is gentle, and it feeds on leaves ; 
browsing upon the young branches at a height much above 
that which any other animal can reach, and drawing them 
towards its mouth by its prehensile tongue. It lives. in 
small troops of five or six individuals, and is very timid, 
although capable of powerfully defending itself by kicking. 
Notwithstanding the length of its neck, the number of ver- 
tebrae which this part contains is no greater than in other 
Mammalia. 

156. (vi.) The Moschid^e, or Musk-deer, are completely 
intermediate between the true Deer and the Camel tribe, 
which last connects the Ruminantia with the Pachyder- 
mata. They resemble the ordinary Ruminants in the 
lightness and elegance of their forms, and in the nimble- 
ness of their movements ; and differ chiefly in the absence 
of horns, and in the projection of the canine tooth on each 
side of the upper jaw, as in the camels. The name of 
this group has been derived from the common musk, the 
males of which secrete the odoriferous substance so called. 
This species is almost without tail ; and the hairs, which 
completely cover it, are so coarse and brittle that they 
might almost be called spines. It is confined to the moun- 
tainous region between Siberia, China, and Thibet, from 
which most of the Asiatic rivers descend. Its habits are 
nocturnal and solitary, and its timidity extreme. The 
other musk-deer inhabit the warmer parts of Asia and the 
eastern archipelago; they have no musk-pouch. They 
are the smallest and most elegant of the Ruminantia, aud 
are aclive and gentle in their habits. 

157. (vn.) The Camelid^e, or Camel tribe, approximate 
to the preceding order, and especially to the whole-hoofed 
division of it constituting the Horse tribe, more than do 
any other Ruminants — to such a degree, indeed, that some 



208. What of ihe giraffes ? 

209. Describe the musk-deer. 



RTJ-ViINANTlA THE CAMEL TRIBE. Ill) 

naturalists prefer associating them with that group. They 
have always canines in both jaws, and two of the incisors 
haw also the same pointed shape. The animals of this 
family are much less elegant in form and graceful in ac- 
tion than the other Ruminants ; but their organization is, 
equally with theirs, most perfectly adapted to the circum- 
stances in which they exist. The family contains two 
groups, the Camels and Llamas; the former are restricted 
to the Old World, and the latter correspond to them in 
the New. 

158. In the true Camels the two toes are united below 
by a kind of horny sole, almost to their points, which ter- 
minate in small hoofs ; and there is a soft cushion beneath 
the foot, by which it bears upon the sandy surface over 
which it is formed to move. Two species are known, one 
called the Bactrian, or two-humped camel, and the other 
the .Arabian, or one-humped. Both are completely do- 
mesticated. The first is employed chiefly in Central Asia, 
the latter in Arabia, North Africa, Syria, Persia, &c. The 
two-humped camel is the larger and stronger, being capable 




7 -~U>' '^^^^^A^c^ l ^^^ 
Dromedary. 

of sustaining above one thousand pounds' weight, and is 
best adapted for rugged ground ; the o^her is the most ab- 
stemious, and the best fitted for the sandy desert. The 

210. Whai is remarkable in ihe Camel tribe ? 

211. What variety is cited? 



120 ZOOLOGY. 

dromedary is merely a lighter variety of it, possessed of 
greater fleetness and power of endurance. The flesh and 
milk of the camel serve as food, and the hair for the manu- 
facture of cloth, to the people who possess it. Their 
humps, principally composed of fat, are provisions of 
super-abundant nutriment, which are gradually absorbed 
and disappear on the occasion of a scarcit)' of other food, 
as is observed at the end of a long journey. By resting 
on their callosities, they are enabled to repose on a scorch- 
ing surface, and their stomachs are adapted to contain a 
supply of water sufficient for several days. 

159. The Llamas of South America are much smaller 
than the preceding; they have the two toes quite separate, 
and are without humps. They were the only beasts of 
burden possessed by the Peruvians at the time of the con- 
quest. They can only make short journeys, and the 
largest of the four species known cannot sustain more 
than one hundred and fifty pounds. Remains of a fossil 
species have been lately found, which must have equalled 
the camel in stature. 

Order XI. — Marsupialia, [from the Latin marsupium, a purse, pouch, 
or bag.] 

160. The two remaining orders of Mammalia, the Mar- 
supialia and Monotremata, are now usually regarded as 
constituting a distinct sub-class, termed Ovo-vivipara, 
intermediate between the truly viviparous Mammalia and 
the oviparous Birds and Reptiles. Their most obvious 
peculiarity is the production of their young at a very 
early period of development, in a state incapable of mo- 
tion, and barely exhibiting the rudiments of limbs; so that 
it is not until a long time after their birth that they acquire 
a condition parallel to that of a new-born animal of one of 
I he higher orders, and they much more resemble the half- 
formed chick in an egg which has been but a few days 
incubated. In accordance with the lower grade of this 
important function, we find a general inferiority of the 



212. Describe the dromedary. 

213. How are the Llamas characterized ? 

214. What is the next order and its peculiarity ? 



MARSUPIALIA. 121 

whole organization to that of the truly viviparous Mam- 
malia, and approaches, in many points of structure, to 
birds and reptiles. The skeleton, the nervous system, 
the arrangement of the large blood-vessels, and the larger 
number of the incisor teeth (which in the higher sub-class 
never exceed six), all show indications of this approxima- 
tion ; and this is also indicated in the deficiency of intel- 
ligence, which is manifest in their physiognomy as well 
as in their actions. 

161. Of these two orders, that of Marsupialia is the one 
which exhibits the least departure from the general type 
of the Mammalia, and it is that, too, in which the provision 
for the continued nourishment of the young by its parent 
is the most remarkable. The new-born imperfect offspring 
attaches itself to the teats of the parent, and remains fixed 
there until it has acquired a degree of development com- 
parable to that with which other animals are born. The 
skin of the abdomen of the parent is so disposed as to form 
a pouch, in which these imperfect young are protected, 
and into which, long after they can walk, they retire for 
shelter on the apprehension of danger. It is from the 
pouch [marsupium) that the order takes its name, this 
being its distinguishing peculiarity. It is remarkable 
that, notwithstanding the general and usually very strik- 
ing resemblance of the species to each other, they differ 
so much in the teeth, the digestive organs, and the feet, 
that, if we rigidly adhere to these characters, we should 
find it necessary to separate them into distinct orders. 

162. The geographic range of this order is extremely 
peculiar. With the exception of the Opossum group, 
which inhabits America, its species are at present almost 
confined to Australia and the neighbouring countries, 
where they constitute, with the Monotremata, almost the 
only mammiferous animals. It is remarkable, also, that 
from the remains found in secondary rocks, they appear 
to have existed at a much earlier geological period than 



215. What is said of" their structure ? 

216. Describe the pouch and its use. 

217. What of their geographic range ? 

11 



122 ZOOLOGY. 

the true Mammalia, and to have been more extensively 
diffused over the earth's surface than at present. 

163. The Marsupialia may be divided into the follow- 
ing families, which have been named according to their 
predominating food. These terms must not, however, be 
regarded as strictly indicating the food of the several species 
contained in each group, but only their general tendency 
to select for their support the substances implied by those 
designations, (i.) Sarcophaga, or flesh-eaters, such as the 
dasyurus. These have three kinds of teeth, long canines, 
and a simple stomach like that of the Carnivora. (n.) 
Entomophaga, or ins.ct-eaters, such as the opossum. 
These have also three kinds of teeth and a simple sto- 
mach, but a more complex intestinal canal : they are 
parallel with the insectivora. (in.) Carpophaga, or fruit- 
eaters, as the plied angers or flying opossums. These have 
large and long incisors in both jaws, the canines sometimes 
absent, and a more complicated intestinal canal. They 
may perhaps be regarded as representing the frugivorous 
bats, (iv.) Pokpiiaga, or grass-eaters, as the kangaroos. 
These have long anterior incisors, the canines only present 
in the upper jaw, or altogether wanting, and a complex 
intestinal canal like that of other herbivorous Mammalia. 
(v.) Rhizophaga, or root-eaters, as the wombat. These, in 
the structure of the teeth and alimentary canal, are true 
Rodentia. Thus it is seen that most of the principal 
groups of the superior sub-class of Mammalia are repre- 
sented in this one. 

loi. (i.) All the existing species of the first family, 
Sarcophaga, are confined to New Holland and Van Die- 
men's Land ; but it is to this that the remains belong 
which have been found in the Stonesfield slate and the 
gypsum quarries of Paris. These animals vary in size 
from that of a small wolf to that of a mouse. The larger 
ones possess considerable ferocity, destroying sheep, and 
even penetrating into houses. Others attack poultry, of 
which they suck the blood. And the smallest are partly 
insectivorous, and live on trees, thus showing an approach 

218. lmo what families are they divided ? 



MARSUPIAMA THi: OPOSSTM TRIBE. 



123 



to the next family. The names hyrena, devil, wild-eat, 
&c, applied by the colonists to these animals, sufficiently 
indicate their general correspondence in habit with those 
of the order Carnivora. 

165. (n.) Of the second family, Entomophaga, some are 
adapted to live on the ground, and even to burrow beneath 
the surface, whilst others ascend trees in search of their 
food. To this latter group belongs the Opossum tribe, 
which is extensively diffused through America. These 




Virginian Opossum. 

have a long prehensile tail ; and the hinder thumbs are 
long, and effectively opposable to the other digits. They 
are foetid and nocturnal animals, of slow gait, nestling 
upon trees, where they pursue birds, insects, &c, without 
rejecting fruit. The Virginian opossum is nearly the 



219. Describe the flesh-eaters and insect-eaters. 



124 



ZOOLOGY. 



size of a cat. It enters the villages at night, and attacks 
poultry, devouring also their eggs. One species frequents 
the marshes of the sea-coast, where it feeds chiefly on 
crabs. In a part of this tribe no pouch exists, but only 
a vestige of it, in the form of a fold of skin on each side 
of the abdomen. In these, the mother supports her young 
by entwining her tail with theirs. 

166. (in.) The animals of the third family, Carpo- 
phaga, are peculiarly adapted to live among the trees on 
which they seek their food. Some species, in their gen- 
eral form and in the prehensile character of their tails, ap- 
proach the Opossums. Such are the couscous of the 
Molucca Islands. These feed on insects and fruit : at the 
sight of a man they are said to suspend themselves by the 
tail ; and if he gazes at them steadily for some time, they 
fall through lassitude. The most remarkable species, 
however, is the petaurus of New Holland, which much 
resembles the flying-squirrels. Like these, it possesses 
an extension of the skin on each side of the body, between 
the anterior and posterior legs ; and a flattened bushy tail, 
by the help of which it can take leaps of considerable 
length. Like the bats, or the flying-lemur, to which it 
may be compared, it is a nocturnal animal, remaining dur- 
ing the day nestled in the hollows of trees ; but it becomes 
animated as night advances, skimming through the air, 
supported by its lateral expansions, half-leaping, half-flying 
from branch to branch, and feeding upon leaves and insects. 
It would seem that, whilst in motion, it has some power of 
altering and directing its course. Another animal belong- 
ing to this group, the phlascolarctos, or koala, a native of 
New Holland, is as large as a moderate-sized dog. It has 
the gait and carriage of a young bear, is arboreal in its 
habits, and passes its life upon trees, and in dens or holes 
which it hollows at their feet. The female carries her 
young for a long time on her back. 

167. (iv.) The family of Poephaga consists chiefly of 



220. Which are the fruit-eaters ? 

221. What variety is named ? 



MARS1 I*: ALIA T1H. KANGAROO TRIBE. 



125 



the Kangaroos and the kangaroo-raU all of which are 
inhabitants of New Holland and the neighbouring countries. 
The Kangaroos are remarkable for the enormous length 
of their hinder feet, whence their generic name, Macro- 
pus (long-footed), is derived. The hind legs and tail are 
also very largely developed ; whilst the fore legs and feet 




Great Kangaroo. 

are very small. From this great inequality in the size of 
the limbs, they advance on all-fours very slowly ; but they 
can make immense leaps with the hind legs, the tail pro- 
bably assisting them. These are furnished with one large 
nail, almost like a hoof, which is a powerful weapon of 
offence and defence ; for supporting itself upon one leg 
and its tail, the animal can inflict a very severe blow with 
the leg which is at liberty. It will sometimes grasp 
its enemy with its fore paws, whilst it kicks it with 
its hind foot ; but this it will only do when attacked, 
for it is naturally a very gentle animal. The largest spe- 
cies is sometimes six feet in height, having the bulk of a 
slieep, and weighing 140 lbs. Its flesh is used as food by 
the New Hollanders, and is described as being somewhat 



222. 



What of the Kn saroo family ? 
11* 



]?J} ^OOLOGY 

like venison. The kangaroo grazes, like ruminant ani- 
mals, and is the only inhabitant of New Holland that at 
all represents that tribe, The- young ones reside in the 
maternal pouch until they are able to graze for themselves, 
which they effect by stretching out the neck from their 
domicile, while the mother herself is feeding. Several 
species exist, diminishing in size to less than that of a hare. 
The kangaroo-rat connects this family with the preced- 
ing one ; it is about the size of a small rabbit. 

168. (v.) The last family, Rhizophaga, contains only 
one species at present known, the phascolomys wombat. 
This animal is about the size of a badger, by which name 
it is known to the colonists ; and is a native of Van Die- 
men's Land. It is a sluggish animal, with a flattened 
head and body. It burrows in the forests and low 
grounds ; hiding itself in natural crevices at higher eleva- 
tions. When attacked, it grunts like a pig; it bites hard, 
and is furious when much provoked. Its pace is hob- 
bling or shuffling, something like the awkward gait of the 
bear ; but, from the structure of its feet and claws, it is 
probable that its burrowing powers are considerable. As 
already mentioned, the organization of its digestive system 
corresponds closely with that of the Rodentia ; and from 
what is known of its food, it seems to find its support, like 
the animals of that order, in the tougher kind of vegetable 
substances. 

Order XII. — Monotremata, [from the Greek, mo?ios, one, and trema, 
perforation.] 

169. The order Monotremata is a very extraordinary one. 
It contains but two species, the echidna or spiny ant- 
eater, and the ornithorhyncus or duck-billed platypus ; 
and these are found nowhere else than in New Holland 
and Van Diemen's Land. These were included by Cu- 
vier (who regarded the absence of teeth as the chief cha- 
racter) amongst his Edentata ; but zoologists have now 
generally agreed that the peculiarities of their structure 



223. Describe the root eaters. 

224. What is peculiar in ihe next order ? 



MONOTREMATA THE ORNITHORHYNCUS. 127 

and physiology fully entitle them to rank as a distinct 
order, even more dissimilar to the other Mammalia than 
are the marsupial quadrupeds just considered. Until 
recently, indeed, it was much doubted by many, whether 
the}- could be included in the class Mammalia at all, since 
their organization did not appear at all adapted for the 
nourishment of the young by suckling, which is the essen- 
tial character of the group. The lips of both animals, in 
adult age, are of horny consistence, resembling the bills 
of birds ; in the echidna they are prolonged into a narrow 
beak, and in the ornithorhyncus they form a wide flat bill 
like that of a duck. Moreover, the presence of glands for 
the secretion of milk appeared doubtful. But the late re- 
searches of Mr. Owen have shown that the lips, in the 
young state of these animals, are much softer and more 
flexible, and that mammary glands certainly exist ; so 
that the question may now be regarded as decided. 

170. The name and character of the order are derived 
from the fact of the excretory openings at the posterior 
part of the body being united into one, as in birds ; and 
this is a point of very remarkable affinity with that class, 
which is borne out by their general organization. There 
is a sort of clavicle (collar-bone) common to both shoulders, 
placed before the ordinary clavicle, and analogous to the 
furcla (merry-thought) of birds. Each foot possesses five 
daws ; and, besides these, the males have a peculiar spur 
on the hinder one, like that of acock. The skeleton pos- 
sesses the additional bones described in the Marsupialia, 
though there is no vestige of the pouch which they there 
support. The young ornithorhynci are produced in an 
extremely imperfect state ; the fur being totally wanting, 
and the place of the eyes scarcely discernible. The 
tongue, which in the adult is lodged far back in the mouth 
advances in the young close to the lower mandible ; and 
this disproportionate development, viewed in connection 
with the flexibility of the bill, is evidently designed to en- 
able it to derive its nourishment by suction. The young 
echidna has not yet been discovered. 



225. How many species are cifed ? 

226. Describe their structure. 



128 ZOOLOGY. 

171. The echidna is characterized by the slenderness 
of the prolonged muzzle or bill, which contains an exten- 
sible tongue, like that of the ant-eater. The jaws are not 
furnished with any teeth ; but the palate is armed with 
many rows of small spines directed backwards. The feet 
are short, very robust, and adapted for digging. The 
whole upper part of the body is covered with spines, bear- 
ing some resemblance to those of the hedgehog; and, 
when apprehensive of danger, and unable to escape from 
it by burrowing, the echidna can erect its spines, and roll 
itself into a ball. Besides the spines, the skin is fur- 
nished with a quantity of soft silky hair, so abundant at 
certain seasons as to half cover the spines, whilst at others 
it entirely disappears. From the difference in the aspect 
of the animal at these periods, two species have been de- 
scribed by some naturalists ; but these are in reality the 
same. 

172. The habits of the Echilnse in a state of nature 
are but little known, for they do not exist in any large 
number; and they burrow so rapidly in the ground, that, 
even when one is discovered, it is not easily got hold of. 
To lift it from the ground requires more force than would 
be supposed ; for it firmly fixes itself to the earth in an 
instant, and but a few moments elapse before it is so far 
down that its back is level with the surface. Lieutenant 
Beton, who kept one of them alive for some time in cap- 
tivity, considers the strength of the echidna as exceeding, 
for its size, that of any other quadruped in existence. It 
feeds upon insects, principally ants, which it captures by 
its long extensile tongue ; and this appears to be fur- 
nished with a glutinous secretion which causes them to 
adhere to it. 

17;$. The ornithorhyncus (so named from its bird-like 
bill) is an animal of such extraordinary aspect, that the 
specimen first brought to this country, at the end of the 
last century, was supposed to have been made up, by the 
attachment of the beak and feet of a bird to the body of an 
otter-like quadruped. It was not until other specimens 

227. Whttt of ,heir peculiar habits ? 



MO NOT RE MA TV THE ORNITHORHYNCUS. 



129 



had arrived, and had been submitted to most careful ex- 
amination, that naturalists were satisfied of the n al exist- 




Ornithorhyncus [from the Greek, ornithos, a bird, and rugchos, a beak.] 

ence of such an animal. Since that period, its true place 
in the scale, depending upon the mode in which it pro- 
duces and nourishes its young, has been a most fertile 
source of controversy ; but the question may now be re- 
garded as set at rest by the inquiries of Mr. Owen, already 
alluded to. 

174. The muzzle of the ornithorhyncus, as already 
stated, b ars a ciose resemblance in form to the bill of a 
duck. The jaws contain no true teeth ; but there are two 
pairs of horny ridges on each side, which may be con- 
sidered as representing them. The fore feet are furnished 
with a membranous web, which ngt only connects the toes, 
but extends beyond the claws. The under surface or 
palm of this is concave, so that it can strike the water 
wiih great effect ; but when the animal burrows, it falls 
buck behind the claws. The hind feet are directed back- 
wards when the animal is swimming, and somewhat resem- 
ble a fin ; the membranous web does not extend on them, 
however, beyond the roots of the claws. The tail is broad 
and flat. The body is covered with two kinds of hair, 
like those found in the seal and the otter; the one fine, 



828. Describe ihe other variety 



180 ZOOLOGY. 

long, and thick ; the other, a still finer, short, and very 
soft fur. 

175. The whole organization of this singular animal is 
evidently designed to adapt it for seeking its food in the 
water, and for chiefly inhabiting that element ; and what 
is known of its habits fully confirms this view. It burrows 
in the banks of rivers, choosing generally a spot where the 
water is deep and sluggish, and the bank precipitous, or 
overhung with trees. Considerably below the surface of 
the stream is the main entrance to a narrow passage, which 
leads directly into the bank, receding from the water, and 
gradually rising above its level. Besides this entrar-ce, 
there seems to be usually another above the water. The 
passage is of about the usual breadth of the animal when 
uncontracted ; and it seems to run for about twenty or 
thirty feet before it terminates in the nest. This is a 
roomy excavation, lined with leaves and moss ; and sel- 
dom less than two feet beneath the surface. Some have 
been found as much as fifty feet from the stream. The 
mode in which these excavations are effected is very ob- 
scure, for the animal never throws up any heaps on the 
surface, or leaves any excavated earth at the entrance. 
The situation of these burrows can thus be only found 
accidentally. 

170. The ornithorhyncus seeks its food in precisely the 
same manner as the duck ; plunging its bill into the mud, 
and withdrawing it again to swallow what it has obtained. 
A sort of masticating movement of the jaws may be ob- 
served, by which the food appears to be partly ground 
between the horny ridges previously mentioned ; but, as 
gravel is almost always found in the stomach, the mecha- 
nical reduction of the food is probably in part effected 
there, as in many birds. River insects, small shell-fish, 
and water-plants, appear to constitute its nourishment. 
The animal is very timorous; and, if alarmed whilst at 
the surface of the water, dives down head-foremost, and 
does not ascend at the same spot. In captivity they are 



229. What is remarkable in their habits? 

230. Describe their method of seeking food. 



BIRDS. 131 

very harmless and playful ; but they move with difficulty 
over the surface of the ground. 



CLASS II. -BIRDS. 

177. Birds have been denominated, and not inappropri- 
ately, the Insects of the vertebrated series. As in the 
animals of that class, we find the whole structure pecu- 
liarly adapted to motion, not in water, nor supported by 
solid ground, but in the elastic and yielding air. It is 
true that there are some birds whose wings are so slightly 
developed, as not to be able to lift them ofTthe ground ; 
and there are others whose natural element seems to be 
the water, through which they are more adapted to move 
than through the element above. But in looking at the 
general character of a group, the naturalist has to put out 
of view these exceptional cases, and to consider the struc- 
ture and habits of the mass. 

17^. It is impossible to conceive of any more beautiful 
adaptation of structure to conditions of existence, than that 
which is exhibited in the conformation of the bird with 
reference to its intended mode of Jife. To make a verte- 
brated animal capable of soaring through the air, some- 
times moving with a swiftness which, in proportion to its 
size, far surpasses that of any other beings but insects, and 
at others sustaining itself on the wing almost without mo- 
tion for a considerable period, is a problem which human 
ingenuity, even with an unlimited command of materials 
and of power of construction, would almost certainly fail 
of solving — so many are the conditions necessary to be 
fulfilled, the slightest failure in any one of which would 
have marred the result. It is only after attentively study- 
ing the structure of these animals, as presented to our view 
by an all-wise Creator, that we become aware of the com- 
plex nature of these conditions, and of the variety of adap- 
tations necessary to fulfil them. 



231. What are the characteristics of birds ? 

232. What wonders are seen in their structure ? 



132 ZOOLOGY. 

179. In regard to the place of the class in the verte- 
brated series, this is easily determined to be between the 
Reptiles and Mammalia. Like the former, its members 
are oviparous, and like the latter, they possess a complete 
double circulation and warm blood. In conformity with 
the general rule of progress, however, we find that, even 
in regard to their reproduction, they hold an intermediate 
place between Reptiles and Mammalia. The former, when 
they have once deposited their eggs, leave them to be 
hatched by the warmth of the sun alone, and take no 
further care of them than in some instances to defend them. 
In fact, they have not, from the coldness of their own tem- 
perature, the power of affording them any superfluous 
heat. Birds, on the contrary, with but few exceptions 
(and these among species which inhabit the neighbour- 
hood of the equator, where the sun has its maximum of 
power), incubate^ or sit upon their eggs, for the purpose 
of hastening their development by the high and steady 
temperature of their owa bodies. Without this aid, the 
requisite changes are not performed ; but it may be afforded 
by artificial means, as has long been done on a large scale 
in Egypt, and more recently in this country. It has 
already been seen that the lowest Mammalia produce their 
young in a state but little advanced beyond that of the 
chick within the egg at an early period of incubation ; 
but whilst the latter advances in its development under 
the influence only of the high temperature to which it is 
exposed, and the assistance of the nourishment previously 
laid up around it, the former is more directly nourished 
and sustained by its parent. In this manner the transi- 
tion from the oviparous to the truly viviparous modes of 
reproduction, appears much less abrupt than when the 
extreme forms of each are alone compared. 

180. In order to adapt the vertebrated animal to its 
aerial residence, it is obviously necessary that the body 
should be of as low specific gravity as possible, that is, 
should be as nearly as can be of the same weight with an 
equal bulk of air. It is further necessary that the surface 



233. What of their incubation 



BIRDS. 133 

should be capable of being greatly extended, and this by 
some kind of appendage that should be extremely ligh% 
and at the same time possessed of considerable resistance. 
The great degree of muscular power required for support 
and propulsion in the air, involves the necessity of a very 
high amount of respiration, for which an express provision 
also exists in insects ; and as the general activity of the 
vital processes depends greatly upon the high temperature 
which this energetic respiration keeps up, a provision is 
required for keeping in this heat, and not allowing it to be 
carried away by the atmosphere through which the bird 
is rapidly flying. 

181, The first and third of these objects — the lighten- 
ing of the body and the extension of the respiratory sur- 
face — are beautifully fulfilled in a mode which will be 
found to correspond with the plan adopted for the same 
purpose in insects. The air which enters the body is not 
restricted to a single pair of air-sacs or lungs, placed near 
the throat, but is transmitted from the true rungs to a series 
of large air-cells disposed in the abdomen and in various 
other parts of the body. Even the interior of the bones 
is made subservient to the same purpose, being hollow, 
and lined with a delicate membrane, on which the blood- 
vessels are minutely distributed. In this manner, the 
respiratory surface is immensely extended, and, by the 
large quantity of air introduced into the mass, its specific 
gravity is greatly diminished. There is another provision 
in the conformation of birds, having reference to the same 
objects. The ribs are connected to the breast-bone by 
bony instead of cartilaginous arches, and are fixed in such 
a manner, that a state of fullness is that which is natural 
to the chest and its contents, whilst that of emptiness is 
forced. And thus the body almost always contains as 
much air as its cavities can hold. 

182. The other two objects — the extension of the sur- 
face and the retention of the heat within the body — are 
also accomplished in combination, by a most beautiful and 



234. How is their physiology remarkable ? 
23r>. Pftseribp their peculiarities. 
12 



134 ZOOLOGY. 

refined contrivance, to which there is nothing parallel in 
the whole animal kingdom, namely, the covering of 
feathers. Like hair or scales, feathers are to be regarded 
as appendages of the cuticle or outer skin ; and the appa- 
ratus by which they are formed does not differ in nature, 
although more complicated, from that which secretes hair. 
The feather consists chiefly of the quill and vane ; by the 
former it is attached to the body, and the latter gives the 
expanded surface. The vane consists of a number of 
small laminae, or separate plates, which are formed be- 
tween folds of membrane that serve as a kind of mould to 
them ; and they are afterwards connected to the stem of 
the feather. When perfectly formed, they are connected 
by minute barbs at their edges, which hook into one an- 
other, and thus give the necessary means of resistance to 
the air. The substance of which feathers are formed is a 
very Dad conductor of heat ; and when they are lying one 
over the otheji small quantities of air are included, which 
still further obstruct, by their non-conducting power, its 
transmission. Thus the two chief objects are fulfilled — 
power of resistance and slow conducting properties being 
combined with lightness and elasticity ; so that a covering 
is formed, so beautiful in itself, and so appropriate to the 
life which the animal is to lead, that, as Paley justly re- 
marked, w I think we should have had no conception of any 
thing equally perfect, if we had never seen it, or could 
now imagine any thing more so." 

183. Besides the proper vane of the feather, most quilis 
have a downy tuft, more or less developed, which is called 
the accessory plume, in which the laminae are not con- 
nected, and are much more flexible. This varies in its 
degree of development, and is frequently larger than the 
true feather. This is often the case with the feathers 
next the body of birds, which have the retention of the 
animal heat as their chief object. In those species which 
are much exposed to the influence of cold and wet, the 
downy leathers of the body often form a distinct layer, 

236; What of their ieaihers, and the uae ? 
237. What other appendage is cited ? 



BIKDrS. [35 

which, from its looseness and thickness of texture, and 
the quantity of air which it includes among the discon- 
nected lamina?, is admirably adapted for this purpose. The 
plumage is rendered completely waterproof by the appli- 
cation of an oily secretion, formed near the rump, with 
which the bird dresses its feathers. 

184. The true feathers may be divided into those which 
are merely for the covering of the body, and those of the 
wings and tail, which serve for its support and motion in 
the air. On the texture of the latter, the powers of flight 
greatly depend. When it is very loose, as in the owl, 
the rapidity of movement is much diminished; but the 
motion is at the same time almost noiseless, so that the 
animal is enabled to steal unheard upon its prey. The 
wing of the partridge, on the other hand, from the pecu- 
liar rigidity and compactness of its feathers, may be said 
to cut the air: and as the owls are the most silent flyers 
of all birds, the partridges are the most noisy; the sudden 
whirring produced by their wings on first arising, being 
entirely due to the sharpness and equality with which the 
air is beaten in successive impulses. 

lso. The change of plumage termed moulting takes 
place in all birds at least once a year, and frequently 
oftener. It commonly occurs several times before the plu- 
mage attains that state which is regarded as characteristic 
of the adult bird ; and the advance to perfection seems to 
be retarded \>y change of climate, confinement, deficiency 
of natural food, &c. The regular changes are subject to 
certain laws, of which the following have been ascer- 
tained : — 1. When the plumage of the male, as is usually 
the case, is the most brilliant, and the female has a differ- 
ent dress, the young birds of both sexes resemble the lat- 
ter in their early plumage. 2. When the adult male and 
female are of the same colour, the young have a plumage 
peculiar to themselves. 3. In some birds, the plumage 
during the breeding season differs from that which they 
bear during the winter ; and the young bird then has a 



238. What variety in feathers is named? 

239. What of moulting, and its laws ? 



136 



ZOOLOGY. 



plumage intermediate in colour between that of the two 
periodical states of its parent, and bearing indications of 
the colours afterwards to be assumed by it at each period. 

186. Besides the alteration in plumage effected by 
moulting, the feathers are liable to undergo a certain de- 
gree of change in their colours, whilst still attached, as is 
sometimes seen in human hair. From the combined ac- 
tion of these two causes, it often happens that migrating 
birds present such different aspects in the two regions 
they frequent that they are mistaken for distinct species. 
The general colour is observed to vary principally accord- 
ing to that of the usual habitation of the race. Thus, the 
birds of the arctic circle are white; those of temp 
climates dark, and generally of a dull colour ; whilst those 
of tropical climates usually possess a brilliant lustre, cor- 
responding with that of the flowers and foliage am 
which they dwell. This adaptation serves the purpose 
of concealment, which is 
necessary alike to the bird 
of prey, to prevent his 
victim from being alarm- 
ed, and to the timid vege- 
table-feeder, for escaping 
the notice of his enen 

187. The general adap- 
tation of the bony frame- 
work to give effect to the 
purposes for which this 
remarkable covering is 
constructed, will next be 
considered. In the ac- 
companying wood cut, i. 
represents the elbow-joint ; 
ii. wrist-joint ; in. finger- 
joint ; a, humerus or arm- 
bone ; b, bones of fore- 
arm ; c, bones of hand ; 
1, 2, 3, 4, rudiments of 
fingers; o, rudiment of 

thumb, or WinJet. The Jer Falcon's Wing. 




BIRDS. ]M 

feathers which form the wings are fixed into the skin 
covering the anterior extremities, which correspond to the 
arms of man. In the boms of these may be recognised 
the chief parts which are elsewhere found ; but those 
which form the hand, being only intended for support, and 
having no prehensile powers, are much consolidated to- 
gether, but at the same time elongated. The quills adher- 
ing to the hand are called primaries ; from their greater 
distance from the centre of motion, they have the most 
powerful effect, and they are therefore constructed in the 
strongest manner; those attached to the fore-arm are 
called secondaries ; and weaker feathers attached to the 
humerus are called tertiaries ; whilst those that cover 
the shoulder are termed scapular a. These distinctions 
are very important in dividing the principal groups into 
subordinate sections. 

188. The anterior extremities of birds being thus solely 
adapted to sustain them in flight, the posterior are neces- 
sarily modified for their support on the ground. These 
are usually placed rather far back, and the spine has a 
position more inclined than horizontal, so as to be balanced 
upon them. The trunk is supported on the thighs by very 
powerful muscles ; and there is another series which pass 
from the lower part of the spine to the toes, turning over 
the knee and heel, in such a manner that the flexion of 
these joints shall shorten them : by this contrivance, the 
simple weight of the body flexes the toes, and birds are 
thus enabled to sleep perched on one foot. Most com- 
monly the feet possess four toes, of which one is directed 
behind and three in front. This posterior toe opposed to 
the rest is not. however, analogous to the thumb of Quad- 
rumana, which is only represented in birds by the spurs 
of the Fowl tribe. In some birds two of the toes are dis- 
posed behind, and two in front ; in others the posterior 
toe is deficient ; in others, again, it is brought forwards. 
The number of joints in the posterior toe is but two ; in 
the external it is five. 



240. How are the colours diversified ? 

241. Describe their bony frame-work. 

12* 



!f>8 



Z00L0GV, 



189. The upper part of the skeleton of the trunk is 
peculiarly adapted to give power to the wings. The 
sternum, or breast-bone, is made to project forwards with 
an elevated ridge or keel, to which the strong muscles 
which depress the wings are attached ; and from the depth 
of this, the powers of flight may be in some degree judged 




Sternal apparatus of the Common Harrier. 
a, furcula; 6. keel of sternum. 






of: in the ostrich tribe, where the wings are not suffi- 
ciently developed to raise the bird off the ground, it is 
quite flat. The shoulder- bones are connected with the ster- 
num and with each other in a much stronger manner than 
in other Vertebrata. The two clavicles, or collar-bones, 
are united together on the central line, forming the furcula 9 
or merry-thought ; and the use of this is to keep the 
shoulders apart, notwithstanding the opposing force ex- 
erted by the action of flying. It is generally firm, and its 
angle open, in proportion to the power of flight. Besides 
this, we find the sternum connected with the shoulder by 
two bones termed corocoid, which in man and the other 
Mammalia are scarcely developed, being merely short pro- 
cesses from the shoulder-blade, which do not reach the 
sternum. 

190. In order to give as great firmness as possible to 
the centres of motion of the wings, the trunk of birds has 

242. Wha\ other singularities of structure ? 



BIRDS. 139 

but little flexibility ; the vertebras being firmly jointed to 
one another, and the ribs united to the sternum by bony 
prolongations of the latter, instead of by cartilages. But 
this want of flexibility of the trunk is counterbalanced by 
the length and flexibility of the neck. The number of 
cervical vertebras (which in the longest necked Mammalia 
is never more than seven) is very considerable, varying 
from twelve to twenty-three, the highest number being 
present in the Swan tribe. These are so jointed together 
that the head can be turned completely round (the position 
assumed when at rest) or moved in any direction. The 
jaws or mandibles of birds are not furnished with teeth; 
but are covered, like those of the Chelonia, with a horny 
envelope, which sometimes projects considerably beyond 
them, and forms the bill. This is occasionally furnished 
with little projections, which in some degree supply the 
place of teeth ; but it is only in the birds of prey that these 
are supported by any corresponding projections of the 
bone beneath. 

191. The reduction of the food is entirely performed 
in the stomach. The digestive process is extremely 
powerful in birds, and the demand for food very frequent. 
The gullet, before entering the stomach, is dilated into 
a large cavity, termed the craw, in which the food is 
stored up as in the cheek-pouches of monkeys, and from 
which it is transferred by little and little to the \x\xe stomach. 
This is composed of two parts, the pr oventri cuius , or 
membranous stomach, the walls of which are beset with 
glands ; and from these a secretion is formed, by which 
the food is moistened. It is then transferred to the second 
division, termed the gizzard, which is furnished with 
thick fleshy walls ; and by the muscular action of these 
it is ground down to a pulp. Gravel is swallowed by 
some birds, for the purpose of augmenting the triturating 
power of this organ. The gizzard is most powerful in 
birds which feed on grains, as the common fowl. In those 
which subsist on animal food, or on soft herbage, its 
muscles are reduced to extreme tenuity, so that it is 

243. What is peculiar in their vertebral conformation ? 



140 ZOOLOGY. 

scarcely distinguishable from the proventriculus. The 
dilatation of the craw is sometimes wanting. In parrots 
and pigeons it is an important organ in the nutrition of 
the young. It is furnished with numerous glands, which 
become developed in both sexes during the period that 
they alternately perform the duty of incubation ; the 
function of these is to secrete a milky substance, with 
which a part of the food swallowed by the parent is im- 
pregnated, and this is then disgorged for the supply of 
the young. 

192. The development of the senses of birds varies in 
different tribes according to the mode in which they are 
adapted to obtain their prey. The sight is almost always 
extremely acute, and is the crr^f means of seeking food. 
The powers of vision in the r pacious birds are probably 
the greatest. A hi wk has been known to distinguish a 
lark, coloured like the clod of earth upon which it is sit- 
ting, at twenty times the distance at which it would be 
perceived either by a dog or man. The rapacious birds 
seem more remarkable, however, for their length of sight ; 
those which, like the swallow, capture insect prey on the 
wing, must have a quickness of sight of which we can 
scarcely form a conception, since, while flying at the rate 
of three miles in a minute, they are constantly on the 
watch for their victims. The sense of smell does not 
seem to be in general highly developed in birds ; even 
the vultures would seem to become cognisant of their food 
at least as much by sight as by scent. The sense of hear- 
ing seems to be in general tolerably acute, especially in 
the nocturnal birds of prey, some of which possess — what 
the rest want — an external cartilaginous ear. The tongue 
of birds does not appear to serve as an organ of taste, 
except in a few species. It is employed in various ways 
as a means of obtaining food. The sense of touch appears 
to be generally very obtuse ; but in such as the duck, 
which search for their food in mud, where neither sight 
nor smell can be of much avail, the bill is covered with a 



244. Describe their apparatus tor digestion. 

245. What of the senses in birds? 



BIRDS. Ill 

skm abundantly supplied with nerves of sensation, in 
order that the animal may feel about for its hidden suste- 
nance. 

193. Of all the endowments of this interesting cla s, 
none is more striking, or ministers more to the pleasure 
and delight of man, than their varied powers of song. It 
may safely be affirmed that one, at least, of the reasons 
for which so much strength of voice has been given to the 
feathered creation is, that it may serve for mutual recogni- 
tion and companionship, which would otherwise be diffi- 
cult between individuals of so small a size, when separated 
by distance or intervening foliage; for this power has 
been bestowed upon the birds which make their habitation 
amongst trees, much more universally, and to a much 
greater extent, than upon any other part of the class. To 
this order of Insessores, or perching-birds, indeed, the 
musical intonation of the voice seems almost exclusively 
confined. The assertion that the song of birds is peculi- 
arly an expression of love at the breeding season, is cer- 
tainly erroneous ; the use of the faculty is by no means 
confined to that season, and probably indicates general 
pleasure and contentment ; the voice will consequently be 
most exercised at the time of courtship, as well as during 
the period of incubation, when the male solaces the partner 
of his cares with his melody. For a combination of 
power, sweetness, variety, richness, and compass, the 
nightingale is generally regarded as entitled to the first 
place among singing-birds ; but the vocal achievements 
of the mocking-bird, which can imitate "to the life" the 
sono: of every other bird, and the voice of almost every 
animal which it hears, while at the same time it possesses 
a rich and peculiar song of its own, are yet more extraor- 
dinary. Many birds which have no song, possess a re- 
markably expressive voice, obviously adapted to commu- 
nicate their wants or desires : the common crow is an 
instance of this. 

194. Not only do birds resemble insects in their general 



246. What of their organs oi voice ? 

247. How is their singing diversified ? 



142 ZOOLOGY. 

structure and mode of life, but also in the peculiar de- 
velopment of the instinctive powers. Under the direc- 
tion of the^e, the place for their nests appears to be 
selected, their materials collected, the nests themselves 
built, and th^ young reared in them, the migrations are 
performed, and many curious stratagems are employed to 
obtain food. These it is sufficient thus to indicate in 
general terms, since it is well known that the habits of 
birds have something peculiar to each species, yet that in 
all the individuals of each species they are as precisely 
alike as their circumstances will admit. Nevertheless, 
there is observed in birds a degree and kind of adaptation 
to varying conditions, which insects do not possess, and 
which display an amount of intelligence superior to what 
is found in that class. And in the domesticability of many 
tribes of birds, we see an obvious approach towards that 
higher form of attachment to man, which is exhibited by 
many species among Mammalia. 

195. There is a more striking conformity in the entire 
class of birds to one general type, than is probably seen 
in any other group of equal extent in the whole animal 
kingdom. The instances of any remarkable departure 
from it are very few ; the chief is that exhibited in the 
Ostrich tribe, in which the development of the wings is 
very small. In no other instance are either of the 
extremities wanting; and thus birds nevir exhibit the 
irregularity occasionally presented by fishes, reptiles, and 
even Mammalia. 

196. Owing to this general conformity of type, the sub- 
division of the class is a matter of some difficulty, since it 
is not easy to say what characters should be regarded as 
of most importance, and what are but secondary. And 
this difficulty extends also to the smaller subdivisions ; in 
separating which, characters that appear very trivial are 
often necessarily employed from the want of others. The 
following orders may probably be regarded as constituting 



248. What of the intelligence of birds ? 

249. How are they subdivided ? 



BIRDS CLASSIFICATION. 143 

groups of species having a positive resemblance to each 
other, and a well-marked dissimilarity from the rest. 

11)7. The Natatores, or Swimming-Birds, are known 
by the union of the toes with a web, so that the surface 
by which the foot acts upon the water is greatly extended. 
The legs are short, and placed behind the point of equi- 
librium. The body is closely covered with feathers, and 
coated with a thick down next the skin. It is in this 
order that we find the nearest approach to reptiles which 
birds present. 

198, The Grallatores, or Waders, are known by the 
length and slenderness of their legs, which are bare of 
feathers to a considerable height, by the elongation and 
straightness of the toes, the length of the neck and beak, 
the slenderness of the body, and the considerable develop- 
ment of the wings. 

19J. The Cursores, or Runners, were included in the 
last order by Cuvier, chiefly, it would seem, on account of 
the length of the legs. But these members, instead of 
being slender, are very strong, being the only locomotive 
organs ; and the wings are very slightly developed, and 
not capable of raising the bird into the air. This last 
character is quite sufficient to separate the group from all 
others, 

5£00. The Rasores, or Scratchers, receive their name 
from an action common to many of them, and particularly 
observable in our ordinary poultry* The character of the 
order is chiefly derived from the structure of the feet, 
which are furnished with three toes, united at the base by 
a short membrane, and with one behind, higher than the 
rest ; and these are armed with short, blunt, and robust 
nails, for the purpose of scratching up their food. 

201. In the first of these orders, the habitation is, more 
or less exclusively, aquatic ; in the second, marshy places 
are chiefly frequented ; and the third and fourth contaui 
birds essentially adapted to live on the ground, and to seek 
their food without rising into the air. In the remaining 
orders, the habitation is more or less aerial. 

250. Describe each of them and their habitations. 



144 ZOOLOGY. 

202. The Scansores, or Climbers, pass most of their 
time in trees, clinging to the branches by means of their 
feet, which are specially adapted to that purpose. The 
external toe is turned backwards, as well as that which 
was posterior in the Rasores, so that they have two toes 
in front and two behind. This conformation prevents 
them from walking readily on the ground ; and their 
powers of flight not being usually great, they are not so 
active as the Insessores. 

203. The Raptores, or Birds of Prey, constitute a 
group sufficiently well marked by the robustness and 
muscularity of the whole body, the strength of the legs, 
and of the bill and talons. The former is strong, curved, 
sharp-edged, and sharp-pointed ; and all of the toes — 
three before and one behind — are armed with long, strong 
and crooked claws. 

204. There now remains a very extensive group of 
birds, presenting no very marked differences amongst its 
members, and not readily defined by any striking charac- 
ters which separate it from the rest. Accordingly, it is 
usually made to constitute but one order, that of Inses- 
sores, or Perching- Birds. The principal character in 
which all these agree, is the slenderness and shortness of 
the legs ; the feet have three toes in front and one behind, 
and the two outer ones are united by a very short mem- 
brane ; they are all slender, flexible, and moderately long, 
with long and slightly curved claws. These feet are 
readily distinguishable from those of the other orders ; 
they are destitute of the webbed expansion possessed by 
the Natatores ; they have not the robust strength and de- 
structive talons which characterize the Birds of Prey ; nor 
do they present the very extended toes which enable the 
Waders to walk safely over marshy soils, and tread light- 
ly on the floating leaves of acjuatic plants. They arc 
adapted to enable the bird to rest on the branches of trees, 
but not to cling to them ; and, accordingly, the birds of 
tins order pass a large proportion of their time on the 
wing. 



251. What of the structure o\ perching -birds ? 



INSESSORES, OR PERCHING-BIRDS 145 

205. Of all these orders, the Cursores present the near- 
est approach to the Mammalia in their conformation and 
mode of life ; but it is among the Incessores that we find 
most developed those characters which have been men- 
tioned as distinguishing the class — power of flight, beauty 
of plumage, and melody of voice. These, therefore, as 
the types of the class, will be first considered. 

Order I. — Insessores, [or perching-birds.] 

206. This order is the most numerous and varied of 
the whole class. Its character seems principally negative ; 
for it embraces those birds which are neither swimmers, 
waders, climbers, rapacious, nor gallinaceous. Never- 
theless, by comparing the different tribes it includes, 
a great general resemblance of structure becomes appa- 
rent ; and such insensible gradations are perceived be- 
tween those that at first appeared most unlike, that it is 
difficult to establish the subdivisions of the group. The 
foot, as the name denotes, is especially formed for grasp- 
ing or perching — a peculiarity evinced by the situation of 
the hinder toe, which is invariably placed on the same 
level or plane as those in front. The length of the tarsus 
or shank (that which appears the lowest division of the 
leg, but is really the higher part of the foot) is moderate, 
and often very short in comparison to what is seen in 
other orders ; and, as these birds never seize their prey 
by their claws, these weapons are never retractile. The 
perchers are thus distinguished from the birJs of prey 
properly so called ; from the climbers they are sepa- 
rated by having three toes directed forwards ; whilst the 
situation of the hind toe enables them to be readily known 
as neither gallinaceous, wading, nor swimming-birds. 
Their food is various, but in general mixed, consisting of 
insects, fruit, and grain ; those in which the beak is stout 
and strong feed more upon grain, some of them, how- 



252. What ot their relative numbers ? 

253. How is their structure remarkable I 

13 



1 16 ZOOLOGY. 

ever, even pursuing- other birds ; and those which have 
a very slender bill feed on insects, or on the juices 
of flowers. The proportional length of the wings, and 
their powers of flight, are as various as their habits. 
In general the females are smaller and less brilliant in 
their plumage than the male ; they always live in pairs, 
build in trees, and display the greatest art in the construc- 
tion of their nests. The young come forth from the egg 
in a blind and naked state, and are wholly dependent 
for subsistence, during a certain period, upon parental 
care. 

207. The larynx, or organ of voice, is always of com- 
plex structure in the members of this order, which contains 
all that are commonly known as singing-birds. There 
are few that do not either sing, or utter some peculiar 
note or chatter analogous to song, during the season of 
courtship ; and even of those which in general utter only 
monotonous cries, or of which the notes are harsh, some 
are frequently capable of being taught to speak, to whistle 
airs, or to imitate other sounds. 

208. The families composing this order may be dis- 
tributed under four large groups or assemblages, charac- 
terized by the respective forms of their bills. The Coni- 
rostres have a stout beak, more or less conical, and with 
regular edges. The Dentrirostres have the upper 
mandible notched, as in the Raptores, towards the point; 
but this notch only exists in the horny covering, and not 
in the bone. The Fissirostres have a short, broad, hori- 
zontally-depressed beak, so formed that the gape of the 
mouth is extremely wide ; it is slightly hooked, but with- 
out any tooth at the edge. The Tenuirostres have the 
bill very slender and elongated ; it is sometimes straight, 
and sometimes curved. 

209. (i.) OoNiROSTREs, [from the Latin, conus, a cone, 
and rostrum, a beak.] The Conirostres are to be regarded 
as containing the types of the order, the species belonging 
to it having the most varied faculties. They feed mdis- 



234. Which organ is complicated and vari-ms ? 
255 How are they distinguished into groups ? 



INSESSORES, OR PERCHING-BIRDS. 147 

criminately upon insects and vegetables, and are therefore 
termed omnivorous. Their feet are so constructed that 
they can walk upon the ground with nearly the same 
facility as they perch upon branches. The families in- 
cluded in this tribe are the Corvid^e, or Crows ; Stur- 
nid.e, or Starlings ; Fringillid^e, Finches ; Bucerid^e, 
Hornbills ; and Loxiad^e, Crossbills. 

210. Of the family Corvid^e, [from corvus, a crow,] 
the common Crows are the most characteristic examples, 
and may be regarded as combining the general characters 
of the class in a greater degree than any other birds. In 
every climate habitable by man these birds are found ; 
they are constructed for powerful and continued flight, as 
well as for walking firmly upon the earth ; they feed in- 
discriminately on animals or vegetables, and when pressed 
by hunger, they do not refuse carrion ; their smell is re- 
markably acute. They are bold but wary, live in com- 
mon societies, and possess great courage ; when domesti- 
cated, they possess a power of imitating the human voice 
nearly equal to that of the parrot ; and, like it, show signs 
of greater intelligence than is found in the rest of the 
class. Under the general term Crow are included the 
raven, which is the largest of European perching-birds, 
and which is bold enough occasionally to carry off poultry ; 
the corby crow, which is very destructive to eggs and 
young game ; the rook, which chiefly feeds on insects, 
and especially devours the grubs of the Coleoptera, though 
it occasionally eats grain if its proper food be scarce ; the 
hooded crow, which feeds upon molluscs, &c, on the sea- 
shore ; and the jackdaw, which is a very vigilant enemy 
of predatory birds. The magpies are nearly allied to the 
crows ; as are also the jays, which live principally, how- 
ever, in woods, and feed on acorns, &c. The nutcrackers 
also belong to this family ; their habits in many respects 
resemble those of the woodpeckers ; they climb trees, and 
[erf irate their bark, and devour all sorts of fruits and in- 
sects, as well as small birds. 



256. What families are included in the first tribe ? 

257. Describe the variety of crows. 



148 ZOOLOGY. 

211. The Sturnid,e, [from sturnus, a starling/] are 
best known by the European starling ; the family 
seems like a smaller race of crows, which they nearly 
resemble in manners and structure, but are much weaker. 
They seek their food generally upon the ground, are social 
in their habits, and seem to prefer plains frequented by 
cattle. They are easily tamed, and may be taught to 
speak, or to imitate the song of other birds. A great 
number of species, in different parts of the world, are re- 
ferred to this family ; amongst them may be specially no- 
ticed the Icterinse, or Hang-nests of South America, which 
build long purse-shaped nests, suspended from the slender 
branches of lofty trees ; they feed on fruits and beetles, 
and are never seen upon the ground. The African 
Buphaga, or ox-pecker, is also remarkable for its habit of 
perching upon the backs of cattle, to which it clings by its 
sharp claws, and then, compressing the skin, to force out 
the larvae of gad-flies, &c, on which it feeds. 

212. The Fringillim:, [from the Latin fringilla, a 
chaffinch,] or Finches, are the smallest of this group 
of perching-birds, and are readily known by the short- 
ness and strength of their conical bills. They subsist 
generally on grain. The number of species is very 
great ; and some among them are everywhere diffused. 
The sparrows, chaffinches, linnets, goldfinches, bull- 
finches, and larks, are the kinds best known in this 
country. To the same genus with the linnet belongs the 
canary-bird, originally brought from the Canary Islands, 
but now so abundantly bred in captivity, that it is difficult 
to assign the original colour from the numerous varieties 
that present themselves. The chaffinch is a bird of cold 
climates ; one species, known as the brambling, visits Bri- 
tain only in the winter ; and another nestles in the high 
Alps, and descends only in the depth of winter to the 
secondary ranges. To this family belong the weaver-birds 
Df tropical climates, which are celebrated for the remark- 
able construction of their nests, composed of blades of grass 
interwoven together ; in one species, a number of mdi- 

258. What of the starlings ? 



INSESSORES — -HORNBILLS. 149 

vidnals unite their nests into a large single mass, divided 
into numerous compartments. The whidas, or widow- 
birds, resemble the linnets, but have a remarkable develop- 
ment of feathers in the tail at the breeding-season, being 
destitute of it at other times. The grosbeaks, of which 
one British species is known as the greenfinch, are remark- 
able for the thickness of their beaks, which are exactly 
conical, and with which they pick out the kernels on which 
they feed. The Virginian nightingale is nearly allied to 
the grosbeak. To this family also belong the buntings, 
granivorous birds, of which several species have been seen 
in Britain ; and the larks, so well known for their habit 
of continuing their song w 7 hilst ascending to great heights 
in the air. With the exception of one species, these last 
are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. The hind toe, 
and the claw which terminates it, are greatly prolonged ; 
the feet are altogether formed for walking on the ground, 
where, indeed, these birds construct their nests. 

213. The Btjcerid^e, or Hornbills, are readily distin- 
guished at first sight by the enormous size of their bills, 
which are swollen or enlarged at the base into protube- 




Bill of Hornbill. 

ranees resembling horns or knobs, which are sometimes 
as large as the beak itself. The form of this excrescence 
varies much with age ; and in very young individuals 

259. In the tribe of Finches, what species are comprised ? 

260. What is peculiar in their structure and habits ? 

13* 



1 50 ZOOLOGY. 

there is no trace of it perceptible. It is not solid, except 
in one species, but composed of a fragile network of bony 
fibres. The use of this curious appendage is unknown. 
The Hornbills are gregarious, noisy birds, of large size, 
and are peculiar to the Old World. Their flight is sail- 
ing, and resembles that of a crow; and on the grpund they 
advance by a leaping kind of movement, assisted by the 
wings. The larger species are extremely shy and diffi- 
cult of approach, and they perch on the decayed branches 
of lofty trees, where their vision can command a wide 
range. They subsist on all sorts of food, devouring tender 
fruits, chasing mice, small birds, and reptiles, without dis- 
daining carrion ; and they breed in the hollows of lofty 
trees. 

214. The family of Loxiad^e, [from the Greek loxia, 
oblique,] or Crossbill tribe, contains a large number of 
genera, of which the common crossbill can scarcely be re- 
garded as a characteristic 
illustration, the peculiar- 
ity from which it takes 
its name not being pos- 
sessed by more than a 
few other species. This 
peculiarity consists in the 
strong curvature of the 
mandibles, so that their Bm of Crossbin L," *"£ *> muscles whicb 
tips pass each other, and 

not always on the same side. By this extraordinary bill 
the bird is enabled to extract the seeds from pine-cones 
with astonishing facility, and it is confined to localities in 
which these are to be obtained. The species common in 
Western Europe has of late years become more abundant 
than formerly in the British Isles, where it was previously 
chiefly known as an occasional straggler. Amongst the 
other tribes associated in this family may be mentioned 
-he colits, in which the upper mandible somewhat passes 
the other. They are birds of Africa and India, which 
climb somewhat in the manner of parrots, live in troops, 




261. Describe the family of Hornbills.. 



INSESSORES- DKNTIROSTRES. 151 

and even breed in society, constructing numerous nests on 
the same bushes. They feed on fruits, the buds of trees, 
and the tender sprouts of vegetables, and sail from bush to 
bush in a long row, one after the other, alighting always 
near the ground, and clambering to the topmost twig with 
the assistance of the beak and long stiff tail ; having picked 
off' all the buds or berries, they sail to the next, but not 
until the whole flock is ready. They are very mischiev- 
ous in gardens in the Cape colony, devouring young 
plants as soon as they spring up ; but they are themselves 
the ordinary food of several birds of prey. They have 
remarkably heavy, massive bodies for their apparent size, 
the plumage lying flat and close. This family is con- 
nected with the Frixgillid.e by the Tanngers, which 
are birds peculiar to America, resembling the Sparrow 
tribe in their habits, feeding on grain as well as on insects 
and berries, and for the most part brilliantly coloured. 

215. (II.) Dentirostres, [from the Latin dens, a tooth, 
and rostrum a beak.] — This group is the most allied of 
all the Insessores to the Birds of Pr^y. As its name im- 
ports, the species it includes are distinguished by a dis- 
tinctly notched bill, and they are the greatest destroyers 
of insects among the Perchers. With very few excep- 
tions, they either'live entirely on insects, or resort to fruit 
only when insufficiently supplied with their favourite 
nourishment. The mouth is protected on each side by 
bristles, which defend the soft parts during the struggles 
of the prey; and the feet are generally adapted more for 
perching than for walking. The form of the beak varies 
in different species ; in the shrikes, for example, it is stout 
and compressed, whilst it is flattened or depressed in the 
fly-catchers, which lead towards the Swallow tribe. This 
group includes the following families: — LaniadjE, or 
Shrikes, which most prominently manifest the peculiari- 
ties of the group. Merulidje, or Thrushes, in which 
there is less restriction to peculiar kinds of food. Syl- 
viadjE, or Warblers, chiefly peculiar for the small size, 
delicate structure, and vocal powers, of the species it con- 



262. What of the Crossbill iribc ? 




152 ZOOLOGY. 

tains. Ampeltd^e, or Chatterers, distinguished by the 
enormous width of their gape. Muscicapid^e, or Fly- 
Catchers, which are more exclusively confined to insects 
than the rest of the tribe, and have small and weak legs. 

216. The analogy between the Laniad^e, or Shrike 
tribe, and the rapacious birds, is extremely evident. In 
the most characteristic specimens of the family, the bill, 
which is in all short and strong, is abruptly hooked at the 
end, and the notch so deep as to form a small tooth more 
or less prominent on each 
side : by this conformation 
the bird is enabled to take a 
firm grasp of its food, and to 
tear it in pieces. The claws, 
also, are usually strong and 
sharp. Like many of the 
falcons, the shrikes will sit 
for hours watching for their 

, . . . & c , . Bill of Shrike. 

prey, which consists 01 small 

birds, and, in the less powerful species, of insects ; and 
will suddenly dart down upon such as come within their 
reach, seize it with their feet, and carry it home to be 
devoured at leisure. They not only pursue small birds, 
but successfully defend themselves against larger ones, 
even attacking them when they intrude in the vicinity of 
their nests. Many species feed also upon frogs and other 
small terrestrial animals. They have various means of 
attracting their prey. Some have the power of imitating 
the songs of such birds as live in their vicinity. A species 
known by the name of the butcher bird, which is a com- 
mon summer visitant in the south of England, impales its 
prey on the thorns of bushes, to devour at leisure, and is 
even said to put up insects in this manner as a bait for 
other birds, which it watches for and darts upon from a 
concealed place in the neighbourhood. This family contains 
a large number of species, distributed through ail quarters 
of the globe. They have the same general structure and 

263. How is the next group distinguished ? 
364. What families does it. emhrane ? 



INSESSORKS THE THRUSHES. 153 

habits, differing only in subordinate particulars. Some, 
which are superior in powers of flight, pursue insects on 
the wing; others subsist entirely on soft caterpillars, which 
they search for among the foliage of high trees ; and others 
prowl about among bushes and underwood, preying upon 
insects and young or sickly birds, and in the breeding 
season destroying great quantities of eggs. The cater- 
pillar-catchers are confined to the Old World, and they 
are represented in the New by the tyrant-shrikes, which 
have many points of resemblance to the Muscicapidae. 
These birds are of considerable size, and possess great 
boldness, attacking both hawks and eagles which come 
near their nests. They are very numerous in tropical 
America : some species feed upon small birds and rep- 
tiles ; others upon insects ; and some pJunge after fish, in 
the manner of the king-fisher, and have even been ob- 
served to throw up their food and catch it in the air, like 
the toucans and hornbills. Some of the shrikes have a 
remarkably melodious song. 

217. The Merulid^e, [from the Latin merula, a black- 
bird,] or Thrushes, have an arched and narrow beak, but 
the point is not hooked, and the lateral tooth is not so 
marked as in the shrikes. Nevertheless, the transition 
from one form to the other is very gradual. This family 
is inferior to the shrikes, therefore, in the peculiar organ- 
ization adapted to rapacious habits, but they possess a 
greater variety of powers. Their feet are not only 
stronger, but are equally adapted for perching and for 
walking, and these birds make their way upon the ground, 
in the air, and among trees, with equal facility. The in- 
dentation of the edge of the bill is sufficient to enable the 
Thrushes to retain a firm hold of their food, whilst its 
superior length enables them not only to capture food that 
is exposed, but to seek for it beneath the surface of the 
ground. It is in this family that we find the birds most 
distinguished for the sweetness, compass, and versatility 
of their song. The Thrushes are not confined to animal 

265. Describe the Shrikes, and their habits. 

266. What vartPtios arr citrH ? 



154 ZOOLOGY. 

food. They live much on fruits and berries ; their habits 
are mostly gregarious in the winter, and in some species, 
as the common fieldfare, throughout the year. 

SI*. Of this family the common thrush (mavis or song* 
thrush), the blackbird, and fieldfare, are well-known and 
also characteristic examples. These, as well as the 
missel-thrush, redwing, ring-thrash, &c, are closely 
allied species of the same genus, of which the other 
species are distributed over the whole globe. The 
mocking-birds, on the other hand, which probably stand 
unrivalled for their powers of voice, are restricted to 
America: some of them approximate to the shrikes in 
their habits. The orioles are also nearly allied to the 
thrushes ; they are migratory birds, having longer wings 
than their congeners, and chiefly frequent the south of 
Europe, where they build very curious hanging nests. 
The anf-thrushes, again, are a large assemblage, living 
entirely between the tropics, where they restrain the 
devastations of those destructive insects. The celebrated 
huhl-buhl of the eas: is one of a group of thrushes remark- 
able for the brilliancy of their plumage and for their 
powers of song. A few species of this family have some- 
what aquatic habits. One of these is the dipper, or 
water-ousel, which immerses its whole body without 
swimming, and walks about in a jerking, fluttering manner 
at the bottom of streams, in ^earch of the small animals 
which constitute its food. 

219. The chief peculiarity which runs through the 
numerous family of Sylviad^:, or Warblers, is the very 
small size and delicate structure of the species which 
compose it. Excepting the Humming-Birds, we find 
among these elegant little creatures the smallest birds in 
creation. The diminutive golden crests, the nightingale, 
the white-throat, and the wood-wren, are examples of this 
family well known to the British naturalist. Its different 
groups are spread over all the habitable regions of the 
globe, and appear to have a peculiar function in the 
economy of nature, being specially designed to keep down 

267. How are ihe thrushes distinguished ? 



INSESSORES THE WARBLERS. 155 

the multiplication of the innumerable minute insects which 
lurk within the buds, the foliage, or the flowers of plants. 
The small size of tj^se insects causes them to escape the 
notice of the thrushes and the larger insectivorous birds ; 
whilst their habits prevent them from being seized by the 
swallow and such as capture insects only on the wing. 
The Sylviadae are for the most part migratory birds ; 
appearing in spring, when the insect world is called into 
life and activity by the renewal of vegetation, and disap- 
pearing in the autumn, when their services are no longer 
required, and when their supply of food diminishes or 
ceases altogether. 

220. The Warblers may be subdivided into five groups, 
each of which is characterized by a difference of haunts 
and some slight peculiarities of structure adapted to them. 
The golden-crests and wood-nmrblers, which are the types 
of the family, confine themselves principally to the higher 
trees, where they search for winged insects among the 
foliage ; or capture them, like fly-catchers, when attempt- 
ing to escape. Of these, the golden-crowned kinglet of 
the British Isles is one of the most interesting species. It 
is the smallest of European birds, but is very lively; it 
constructs a globular nest on trees, with a lateral opening, 
and suspends itself on their boughs, in all positions like 
a tit. The reed-warblers and nightingales haunt the 
vicinity of waters, or the more dense foliage of hedges, for 
insects peculiar to such situations. These have some 
affinity with thrushes, being of larger size than the true 
warblers, and subsisting in part upon fruits as well as 
upon insects. The stonechats, on the contrary, prefer 
dry commons and wide extended plains, and feed on in- 
sects peculiar to those localities. They are lively birds, 
rather high upon the legs, and run with considerable 
swiftness; and they build on or near the ground. The 
robins belong to this group, connecting it with the las'. 
The insects frequenting humid and wet places are the 
particular food of the wagtails and tit-larks, which bear 



268. What examples are given i 

269. how are the warblera remarkable? 



156 ZOOLOGY. 

considerable resemblance to the waders in their aspect 
and habits. They live almost entirely on the ground, 
where alone they seek their food, w&ich consists wholly 
of insects ; they particularly haunt damp meadows, and 
the sides of standing or running waters ; and in the black 
and white plumage which generally characterizes them, 
as well as in their power of running very quickly, they 
particularly resemble the plovers. Lastly, the tit-mice 
search for insects with the greatest assiduity among the 
buds and tender shoots of trees ; and even pierce the 
bark, and open seeds, to get at them. They have a 
slender, straight, and conical beak, somewhat resembling 
that of the Conirostres. They are very active little birds, 
continually flitting from spray to spray* and suspending 
themselves in all kinds of attitudes. When piercing 
seeds, they hold them fast with the foot, and then extract 
the kernel through a hole which they pick in the husk. 
They are quite omnivorous, not even sparing small birds, 
when they find them sick and are able to destroy them, 
and also storing up provisions of grain. 

221. Of the family of Ampelid^e, [from the Greek am- 
peleon, a singing bird,] or Chatterers, the most character- 
istic examples belong to tropical America, and only one is 
found in Europe — the wax-wing. The birds of this family 
are distinguished from all the other Dentirostres by the 
enormous width of their gape, which in many extends be- 
yond the eye, and in some is nearly as wide as in the 
goatsucker. This bill is not defended by bristles, how- 
ever, at its corners ; and the absence of these indicates 
that its wide opening is not for the purpose of catching 
insects on the wing, as in the swallow tribe. The chat- 
terers live almost entirely on soft berries and small fruits, 
which they swallow whole ; and this food naturally re- 
quires a very wide passage. They are perpetually hop- 
ping among fruit-bearing trees, and scarcely ever come to 
the ground. 

222. The species which may be regarded as the types 



270. Into what group3 are they divided ? 

271. What is peculiar in each * 



INSESSORES THE FLY-CATCHERS. 157 

of this family are very little known, being inhabitants of 
the deepest and most secluded forests of tropical America. 
They are oftener heard than seen ; their notes being 
peculiarly loud, and uttered morning and evening from 
the deepest recesses of the forests. Many of them are 
clothed in a very rich and brilliant plumage, which rivals 
that of the humming-birds. Some of them are as large 
as a thrush ; others, known by the name of manakins, are 
of diminutive size. These last live in little bands, and 
are continually in motion. The nest of one species is 
often built in the fork of a shrub, in such an exposed 
situation that the female can -look all around and watch 
the approach of danger. The wax-wings are so named 
from the peculiar character in the secondary quills of the 
wing, the ends of which are converted into smooth oval 
red disks, much resembling red sealing-wax. The Euro- 
pean species appears in flocks, at long intervals, and 
without regularity. It is not timorous, is easily captured 
and kept in captivity, and eats of every thing in great 
quantity ; in the wild state, however, it feeds principally 
on berries. 

223. The Muscicapid^:, [from the Latin musca, a fly, 
and capio, I catch,] or Fly-catchers, are a family hardly 
less numerous than that of the warblers ; and are com- 
posed, like that group, entirely of small birds. This 
family is more purely insectivorous than any other of the 
order, few of the species belonging to it ever partaking of 
fruits. The legs of these birds are remarkably small and 
weak, indicating their sedentary habits. They usually 
place themselves on a spot from which they can dart 
readily upon such insects as come within their reach ; 
they do not, however, attempt to pursue their prey if un- 
successful in the first instance, but return to the spot they 
had quitted, or to another near it. These birds have a 
bill flattened at its base ; and the sides of the mouth are 
defended with stiff bristles, to confine the struggles of their 
prey. The members of this family are distributed through 



272. How are the Chatterers described ? 

273. What is said ot their number and variety? 

14 



158 ZOOLOGY. 

the temperate and tropical portions of the Old World, and 
the temperate parts of the New. Between the tropics, 
however, they are replaced in America by the tyrant- 
shrikes and fly-catching warblers, both which groups are 
unknown in Africa and India. The Jly- catcher s of Europe 
are small birds, about the size of a sparrow. One specie! 
is common in Britain, usually arriving about May. It 
has been observed to take its station on the top of a stake 
or post, from whence it springs forth on its prey, catching 
a fly in the air, and hardly ever touching the ground, but 
returning to the same stand for many times together. To 
this family belongs the group of wafer-chats t which are 
restricted to the warm latitudes of America, where they 
seem to represent the stonechats and wagtails of the Old 
World. They are furnished with long legs, and run 
with great facility, feeding upon the insects which resort 
to the sides of streams and rivers. They never hunt 
among trees, and rarely perch. One of the most remark- 
able birds of the family is the eurylaimus, which inhabits 
the hottest parts of India and the adjacent islands. It is 
distinguished by the enormous breadth of its bill, and also 
by its very bright plumage. It frequents the most inac- 
cessible parts of the country, covered with forests, and 
abounding in rivers and marshes; and builds its nest 
dependent from the branch of a tree overhanging the 
water. 

224. (III.) Fissirostres, [from the Latin, Jissura, a 
slit, and n ).slrum, beak.] — The group of Insessores thus 
designated is a comparatively small one ; but it is very 
distinct from all others in the beak, which is short, broad, 
horizontally depressed, slightly hooked, and very deeply 
cleft, so that the opening of the mouth is extremely wide. 
The birds possessing this kind of bill are adapted for 
capturing insects on the wing, receiving their prey in full 
flight into their mouths, which remain open for that pur- 
pose ; and the victim is secured by a gluey exudation 
within, and a strong fence of bristles on the outside, which 
also serves to protect the soft parts of the head from its 



2" l. W'liai of i he Fly-catchers f 



INSESSORES — THE SWIFTS A.\i> SWALLOWS. I ". J 

struggles. Although such is the typical or characteristic 
form of the bill in this group, it is not always seen. In 
species the bill is stronger and longer ; and these 
are distinguished by having the external toe nearly 
as long as the middle one, and attached to it until nearly 
its end ; to these the name of Syndactyli was given by 
(Juvier, who associated them into a separate group. The 
Fissirostres, as a whole, are peculiarly distinguished by 
having the powers of flight developed to the highest de- 
cree. All the energies of their nature seem concentrated 
in this one perfection ; for their feet are always very short 
and weak, and serve but for little else than to rest the 
body after flight. They may be separated into diurnal 
and nocturnal, like the birds of prey. 

225. This group may be divided into the five following 
families: — Hiri ndimdjE, or Swallow tribe; Caprimul- 
gid.e, or Goat-suckers. Both these present, in a remark- 
able degree, the organization which has been described as 
characteristic of the order. The remaining families have 
a longer and narrower bill, and are syndactylies: Me- 
ropid.e, or Bee-eaters ; Halcyonim:, or King-fishers ; 
Todid.e, or Todies. 

226. The Hirundinid^e, [from the Latin hirundo, a 
swallow,] containing the swifts and swallows, are diurnal 
birds, remarkable, like the diurnal Raptores, for their 
close plumage, the extreme length of their wings, and the 
rapidity of the ir flight. The swifts possess these charac- 
ters in the highest degree, and surpass all other birds in 
the power of sustaining a rapid flight for a long time. 
They are distinguishedWrom the swallows by having the 
hind toe directed very much forwards : and all four toes 
are armed with sirong crooked claws, which give to the 
bird such a firm grasp, that it can sustain itself by the side 
of perpendicular rocks or buildings with great facility. In 
some species, the tail feathers are very stiff, as in wood- 
peckers, and serve as an additional support. They spend 
their time almost entirely in the air, and pursue insects in 



275. How is i he next group described? 

276. How are these divided ? 



160 



ZOOLOGY. 



flocks, sometimes at a great height, uttering discordant 
screams. They nestle in the holes of walls and rocks. 
The swallows are less capable of sustaining a continued 
flight than the swifts, as is shown by their weariness after 
or during migration, on which occasions they have been 
seen to alight flat upon the sea. Several species exist in 
Europe, and many more in other parts of the world. 
Among them may be mentioned a small species inhabit- 
ing the Indian archipelago, which forms its nest of a spe- 
cies of sea-weed, which it macerates in its stomach and 
then arranges in layers. These edible birds' nests, as 
they are commonly termed, are highly prized as delicacies 
in China, and constitute an important article of traffic with 
that country. 

227. The Caprimulgid^:, or Goaf-suckers, are noctur- 
nal birds, and have the same light soft plumage which 
characterizes the owls. Their eyes are large, and theii* 
gape still wider than 
that of the swallows, 
so as to be capa- 
ble of engulfing the 
largest insects. They 
come forth in the 
twilight and return 
to rest before morn- 
ing ; but in their 
other habits they 

much resemble the Head of Goat-sucker. 

swifts, with which, indeed, they are closely connected by 
intervening species ; for, whilst there are goat-suckers 
which fly by day, skimming over the surface of ponds in 
small flocks, precisely in the manner of swallows, there is 
also a swift which only flies at night. 

228. The family of MeropidvE, or Bee-eaters, is con- 
fined to the warm regions of the Old World ; only one 
species being known as having occasionally strayed to 
Britain. They have long and pointed wings and short 




277. What of the Swallow tribe ? 

278. How are the Goat-suckers characterized ? 



INSESSORES THE TODIES. 161 

feet, and fly in the manner of swallows. The European 
Bee-eater annually visits Italy, in flocks of twenty or thir- 
ty, and may be seen skimming over the vineyards and 
olive-plantations, especially pursuing bees and wasps. It 
is remarkable that they are never stung by these ; they 
seize the insect, and at once crush it by the snap of their 
powerfully compressive beak. To this family also belong 
the rollers, most of which are natives of the East, but of 
which one species inhabits Europe. They are in some 
respects intermediate between the swallows and bee-eaters. 
One species is stated to perch and watch for prey on the 
horn of the rhinoceros, giving notice to that animal of the 
approach of the hunter; but in general they take their 
food on the wing. They collect no nest, but lay their 
eggs in holes. 

229. The Halcyonid^e, or King-fishers, are remarka- 
ble for the great length of the bill and the extreme short- 
ness of the feet. Their habits are sedentary, much 
resembling those of the fly-catchers ; but their food is 
more various. The common British species partly lives 
on small fish, which it takes by precipitating itself into the 
water, either from the branch on which it had perched, or 
by suddenly arresting itself during rapid flight, poising 
for an instant, and then plunging. It returns to its perch 
to gulp its prey, first killing it by repeatedly beating it 
against a bough. The King-fishers nestle, like the bee- 
eaters, in holes of banks ; and are found in both continents. 
Some of them, which inhabit desert regions, prey on 
snakes and other reptiles ; others feed on insects ; and 
some of the largest species on Crustacea. The largest 
species of this family is found in Australia, and is remark- 
able for its loud and grating prolonged cry. 

230. The Todid^e, or Todies, are small American 
birds, resembling the king-fishers in their general form, 
and may be regarded as representing them in the New 
World. Their legs are rather long, and their wings in- 
capable of any but the most feeble flight. In their habits, 



279. What is remarkable in the Bee-eaters? 
2fc0. What of the King-fishers? 

14* 



I >2 ZOOLOGY. 

they bear much resemblance to the fly-catchers ; for they 
hop about among the slander branches of trees, hanging 
from the twigs like the tits, and occasionally making a 
short flitting with their wings to capture an insect that 
attempts to escape. Like the king-fishers, however, they 
nestle on the ground, and usually near water ; and their nest 
is a natural hollow, or one excavated by themselves, in a 
bank, but slightly lined with straws and down. They have 
scarcely any voice except at pairing time ; and their colour 
closely resembles that of the trees in which they dwell. 
231. (IV.) Tenuirostrks, [from the Latin tenuis. 
slender, and rostrum, beak.] — This group, it has been 
well remarked, " is among the most interesting of the ani- 
mal world. Deriving their subsistence, for the most part, 
from the nectar of flowers, we nevt r fail to associate them 
in our idea with that more beautiful and perfect part of 
the vegetable creation, with which, in their delicacy and 
fragility of form, their variety and brilliancy of hues, not 
less than by their extracting their nourishment from vege- 
table juices, they appear to have so many relations." 
This tribe is confined exclusively to the torrid zone and 
southern hemisphere. The length and slenderness of the 
bill are its distinguishing characteristics. It is not by this, 
however, but by the long filamentous tongue, that the 
juices of flowers are sucked up; and to protect this im- 
portant organ, the peculiar conformation of the bill seems 
chiefly intended. The tongue is often simply forked, but 
is sometimes divided into so many slender filaments as to 
resemble a painter's brush. The feet are vury short and 
delicate. All these characters are presented in the great- 
est perfection by the Trochilid^:, or Humming-birds, 
which are the types of the group. In the Cyrinnid^e, or 
Sun- birds, the feet are more lengthened. The Promk- 
kopidje, or Hoopoes, have the tongue short. The Para- 
DisiD.fi, or Birds of Paradise, are separated by the str 
of the feet. And the MeliphagidjE, or Honey-suckers, 
have the bill notched. 



281. Describe the Todie9. 

282. How is the next group divided ? 



INSESSORES — TH:: HUMMING-BIRDS. 103 

2 '2. The Trochiltdte, or Humming-hird tribe, so 
celebrated for the metallic lustre of their plumage, and 
particularly for the gem-like brilliancy of some of their 
feathers, have, within their long slender beak, a tongue 
capable of protrusion like that of the woodpeckers, and di- 
vided almost to the base into two filaments. These fila- 
ments are not tubular, as they ar- 1 sometimes described, 
but are flattened. It is not improbable that the tongue 
may serve for catching insects, as well as for sucking the 
juices of flowers; since it is unquestionable that, like 
others of the order, the humming-birds are partly insecti- 
vorous. When hovering over flowers, these birds balance 
themselves in the air by a rapid motion of th^ wings, like 
many flies ; and it is by this movement that the humming 
sound is produced, from which they take their name. 
The flight of these birds, the smallest of the order, is so 
rapid as frequently to elude the eye. They live solitarily; 
defend their nests with courage, attacking with their 
needle-like bills the eyes of intruders, which makes these 
minute creatures truly formidable ; and fight with each 
other desperately. 

233. This, family is exclusively confined to America, 
and, with few exceptions, to the southern part of that con- 
tinent and the adjacent West Indian islands. More than 
one hundred and seventy species are at present known, 
and others are constantly being discovered. The smallest 
of them, when plucked, are less than a large humble-bee ; 
and one only, which is much larger than any others as 
yet known, nearly equals the common swift in size. This 
bird is also one of the dullest coloured, and its general re 
semblance to the swifts is very manifest. 

234. The Cinnyrid^e, or Swi-birds, represent the 
humming-birds in the eastern continent. They are close- 
ly allied to the Trochilida? in general structure, and in the 
mode of obtaining their food, but their tongue is not so 
deeply divided. They are small birds, and the males have 
the most brilliant colours, rivalling those of the humming- 
birds during the breeding season ; but the garb of the fe- 

833. What is peculiar in ihe srructure of Hu;nming-bird* ? 



164 ZOOLOGY. 

male, and of the male at other parts of the year, is much 
more dull. The bill is not so straight as in the Trocbili- 
dae, and the legs less delicate, so that a connection between 
that and other families is evident through this one. The 
sun-birds are of a lively disposition, and sing agreeably. 

235. The PromeropidtE, or Hoopoes, are also restricted 
to the Old World ; one species, the common hoopoe, an- 
nually visits Europe, in company with the bee-eaters and 
other swallow-like birds ; but, unlike its congeners, it 
seeks its food on the ground. Most of the tribe, however, 
feed upon the juices of flowers and succulent fruits, and 
their plumage possesses metallic lustre. The feet, as well 
as the tongue, are very short. 

236. The Paradisid^e are among the largest of the 
Tenuirostres, and seem to live, like the rest of the order, 
chiefly upon soft vegetable substances. They are con- 
fined to New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, and 
for a long time no specimens were obtained but such as 
had been deprived by the natives of their legs, whence it 
was at one time supposed that they were destitute of limbs, 
and supported themselves entirely on their airy plumes. 
The extraordinary development of their feathery appen- 
dages is well known ; but of the purpose these serve in 
their economy, no plausible account has been given. The 
very restricted locality of these birds, and the savageness 
of the people who inhabit it, have prevented naturalists 
from obtaining much knowledge of their habits. They 
are partly supported upon insects. 

237. The Meliphagid^:, or Honey-suckers, are dis- 
tinguished from all the preceding families by their 
notched bill ; their tongue is terminated by a bunch 
of delicate filaments, and the hind toe is so strong and 
robust, that it serves as a support to the bird during the 
process of feeding. This group is chiefly confined to 
Australia, where its members abound in great variety 
of form, and where they find a never-failing support in 



284. How are sun-birds described ? 

285. What of ihe hoopoes ? 

286. Describe the birds of Paradise 



RAFTORES, OK RAPACIOUS BIRDS. 65 

the luxuriant vegetation of that country. But they do not 
confine themselves to the juices of flowers, for they per- 
forate the bark of trees and draw forth insects from be- 
neath it, in the same manner as the woodpeckers. We 
have thus an approximation towards the Scansorial order ; 
but this is much more manifest in a family which may be 
regarded as intermediate in position between the Scansores 
and the suctorial Insessores. 

2ttS. This family, that of the Certhiad^e, consists of 
the Tree-creepers, Nuthatches, &c. Its members strongly 
resemble the scansorial birds in their habits, but they 
more closely approximate to the Tenuirostres, and espe- 
cially the Meliphagidse, in general structure. Like those, 
they are of small size ; the foot has three of the toes di- 
rected forwards, and the bill is more slender and delicate 
than that of the woodpeckers. The Tree-creepers bore 
into trees, how r ever, and rest upon their tail in climbing, 
much as do the woodpeckers, but they rather seek for 
their food in the natural chinks of the trees, or among the 
mosses and lichens which cover the branches. The 
Xuthatches have a stronger bill, which is straight and 
pointed, like that of the woodpeckers. They use it, how- 
ever, rather to scale off the bark than to perforate it, and 
they do not support themselves upon the tail. They feed 
not only upon insects but upon various seeds, and are 
celebrated for the instinct of fixing a nut in a chink while 
they pierce it with the bill, swinging the whole body as 
on a pivot, to give effect to each stroke. The British 
species is about the size of a robin, its note loud, and its 
disposition remarkably fearless. 

Order. II. — Raptores, [or ravenous birds.] 

239. The rapacious [from rapax Latin, devouring'] birds 
constitute a well-marked group, which may be compared 
with that of the Carnivora among Mammalia. In comparison 
with the Insessores, their number is but few ; for had it been 
otherwise, they would soon have extirpated the whole race. 



287. What of the Honey-suckers ? 

288. What varieties are in the next family ? 



106 ZOOLOGY. 

They usually breed but slowly, leading solitary lives, and 
never appearing in numerous collections. Most of them 
are large and powerful birds; and, what is an exception 
to the general rule, the female is larger than the male, 
but her plumage is usually of a duller aspect. There are 
few of this family which do not show great strength of 
wing; but the power and swiftness of flight that are pos- 
sessed by the different species, vary with their habits. 
As among the carnivorous Mammalia, we find some 
species adapted to pursue and bring down living prey, 
and these are endowed with the greatest activity and 
strength of movement. Others feed upon the carcasses of 
animals that have met their death in various ways, in 
search of which they have to perform long journeys : 
these are endowed with great power of wing, but their 
swiftness is less. The least degree of these faculties 
among the raptorial birds, exist in those which feed 
upon decomposing animal matter, or which hunt after 
such small game as it requires neither swiftness nor power 
to seize. 

240. Rapacious birds are all remarkable for their strong 
hooked bill and large acute talons. The force of these is 
indicated by the size of the muscles of the legs and thighs ; 
and the foot is usually but of moderate length, that its 
power may not be lost by being diffused over too large a 
space. It is by the talons that the prey is usually struck 
first ; and, when secured by the feet, it is torn open by the 
bill. For this purpose there exists in the typical Raptores a 
strong and sharp tooth-like projection from one or both of 
the mandibles, which is of material assistance ; but in 
such tribes as feed on carrion or small animals, it is nearly 
or entirely deficient. "It is thus that nature preserves in 
this order a strong analogy to the carnivorous quadruped. 
The slothful vulture and the cowardly hyaena glut them- 
selves upon carrion ; the bold and majestic lions, like the 
noble falcons, feast upon no other prey than what their 
own courage has procured ; while the owls and the stoats 

289. How are the ravenous birds described ? 

290. For what are ihey remarkable ? 



RAPTORES THE FALCONS. 167 

prowl during the night after the same feeble and ignoble 
game." 

241. This order is usually divided into two series — the 
diurnal and nocturnal Birds of Prey ; the former con- 
taining the falcons, eagles, vultures, &c, and the latter 
the owls. As the falcons, vultures, and owls, however, 
constitute three distinct families of equal rank, it will be 
preferable thus to consider them. They are chiefly dis- 
tinguished from each other by the presence or absence 
of the tooth on the bill, already adverted to ; by the de- 
gree in which the neck is clothed with feathers or desti- 
tute of them ; by the size of the eyes, and the presence 
or absence of a fringe of feathers around them ; and other 
minute characters, the relation of which with the chief pe- 
culiarities of the several families will be more obvious when 
they are particularly considered. 

242. The Falconid^e, or Falcon tribe, exhibit the per- 
fection of the order, and correspond very closely in their 
general habits, and the adaptations of structure to them, 
with the Feline tribe among the Carnivora. Their bodies 
are of moderate size ; their forms light but powerful ; their 
flight graceful ; and their courage very great. They are 
technically distinguished from the vultures, to which 
(being both diurnal birds of prey) they are most nearly 
allied, by the bill being toothed, as well as shorter and 
sharper; and by the acuteness and strong curve of their 
talons, which like those of the Cat tribe, are retractile. 
The members of this family are almost universally dif- 
fused over the earth's surface, some species of them exist- 
ing wherever there is a sufficient expanse of land. They 
are less abundant in islands, for a considerable extent of 
country is necessary to supply them with food. Their 
plumage is destitute of a bright or gay assemblage of 
colours, but is nevertheless in many instances peculiarly 
elegant. The plumage of the young bird, however, is 
very different from that of the adult, which it is long in 
attaining; and, when first hatched, the young falcon, like 
a new-born kitten, is blind and feeble. 



291. How are (hey divided? 



108 



ZOOLOGY. 



243. The Falconidae have been commonly divided into 
the noble and ignoble ; the latter not being susceptible of 
being trained to the (so-called) noble sport of falconry. 
The noble division comprehends the Falcons-proper, 
which are distinguished from the rest by the size of the 
tooth on the mandible, and by the power of their wings, 
which are long and pointed. They are the most cou- 
rageous of all the family in proportion to their size ; and 
are especially adapted to pursue and bring down their 
prey whilst it is on the wing. From the peculiar con- 
struction of their wings, it is not easy for them to rise di- 
rectly into tjie air ; and their forward flight, in a calm 
state of the atmosphere, is very oblique. When they 
wish to rise directly they fly against the wind, which 
raises them as it would a paper kite. A large number 
of species are known in Europe. The ignoble Falcons 
have less powerful wings, which are shaped like those 
of the true falcons, with the tips obliquely cut off. The 
tooth on the bill is less strongly marked, and is often re- 
duced to a mere festoon. 

244. The Eagles may probably be considered as rank- 
ing next to the falcons. They are the largest and most 
powerful of the whole group, and pursue and destroy 
quadrupeds as well as birds. They are distinguished 
from all other Raptores by having the legs and feet fea- 
thered quite down to the toes. They usually build their 
nests in lofty and secluded situations, especially among 
mountains and precipices, and resist with great courage 
any attack upon their young. A large number of species, 
varying considerably in size, exist in Europe, and many 
others in America. Some of the English ones are no 
larger than the buzzards, which are nearly allied to them, 
and may be regarded, in their habits as in their size, as 
eagles in miniature. They reside in forests, building 
high in trees, and descending from the top upon their 
prey. They destroy much game, and are an especial 
pest to rabbit-warrens. 



292. Describe the Falcon tribe, and their peculiarities. 

293. What of the Eagles, and their habits ? 



RAPTORES THE VULTURES. 169 

245. The Hawks are also nearly allied to the falcons, 
and some of them have been employed in pursuit of game, 
upon which, however, they stoop obliquely and not per- 
pendicularly. The tooth on the bill is reduced to a kind 
of festoon, towards the middle of its margin, but the shape 
of the bill, in other respects, is the same as in the falcons, 
being short, high, and curved from the base ; the wings 
are also more rounded, but not so much cut at the ends as 
those of the eagles. The Kites have comparatively short 
feet and feeble claws, and they are much less courageous 
than the rest of the family. They are distinguished by their 
long wings and forked tail, by which their flight is ren- 
dered swift and easy, but it is less powerful than that 
of other Raptores. The common kite of this country has 
the power of hovering, balanced on its wings, for a longer 
time than any other known bird. It principally feeds on 
reptiles. 

246. A few species of this family, mostly included 
among the Ospreys and Ernes (both of which, but espe- 
cially the last, are nearly allied to the ea^le), are aquatic m 
theirhabits, living upon the sea-shore, and subsisting chiefly 
or exclusively upon fish. They are at once distinguished by 
the roughness of the under surface of the foot, which assists 
them in holding their slippery prey ; and the Ospreys have 
also the power of turning backwards the outer toe, and op- 
posing it to the rest, so as much to increase the grasping 
power of the foot. 

247. The birds of the family Vulturid.e, or Vulture 
tribe, are on the whole much larger than those of the pre- 
vious family, but they are much less courageous. The 
beak is lengthened, and curved only at the end, and it is 
not in the least toothed. The power of their talons by no 
means corresponds with the stature of these birds, and 
they make more use of their beak than of their claws. 
Hence they are not adapted for a contest with a courageous 
victim, and rather seek carrion already decomposing, to 
which they are attracted — whether by the sight or by 
the smell is still a disputed question. On this they gorge 

2y4. How are the Hawks and Kites described? 

15 



170 



ZOOLOGY. 



to repletion ; and, in order that the parts of the bird which 
come most in contact with this offensive' food should not be 
soiled and matted together (as they would be if covered 
with feathers,) the skin of the head, and frequently also 
of the neck, is destitute of covering. The legs, too, at 
their lower part, are covered with scales, and not with 
U others, as in the eagle. 




White-headed Erne. 

2 IS. The Vultures are most abundant in hot climates 
where they perform important services, by removing de- 
composing carcasses, which would otherwise be a source 
of offensive and noxious exhalations. They are sparingly 
scattered over the south of Europe ; in Egypt they are 
more numerous, and in tropical America, although the 
species are fewer, the individuals are much more plentiful. 
The two most remarkable species of the family are natives 
of that continent, the condor of the Andes, and the papa 



295. What ol i lie Vulture tribe \ 



RAPTORES THE VULTURES. 171 

or king-vulture of the Brazilian forests. The former is 
well known for the loftiness of its flight and its great 
strength ; and it appears to have more power than any- 
other bird of adapting itself to different elevations in the 
atmosphere, having been seen to dart from one of the 
highest peaks of Pinchtncha to the very brink of the sea, 
thus traversing all climates in a few seconds, and passing 
from a barometric pressure of 12 inches to one of 29. 
The king-vulture has a brighter plumage than the rest of 
its tribe, and the naked parts of the head and neck are 
vividly coloured. It receives its name from the circum- 
stance of the gallinazo, a smaller species, giving place to 
it through fear, whenever it settles upon a carcass which 
the other had begun to devour. 

249. The Griffins connect the falcons and owls, but 
strictly belong to the vultures. They are the largest rap- 
torial birds of the eastern continent. They inhabit high 
chains of mountains, and build their nests in inaccessible 
situations. Lambs, goats, chamois, and even children, are 
carried away and devoured by them. They sometimes 
destroy their prey by forcing them over the edge of a 
precipice, and in this manner are said to have overcome 
even man. They do not, however, refuse dead bodies. 

250. The Neophrons are birds of the vulture kind, 
which go even beyond them in cowardliness and in the 
propensity to decomposing aliment. They are attracted 
by filth of the most disgusting kinds, which they are very 
useful in removing. They are common in Africa and on 
the borders of the Mediterranean, but rarely show them- 
selves in the north of Europe. An American species is 
known in that country as the carrion crow. 

251. The Gypogeranus or Secretary Vulture, is a 
very remarkable bird, whose true place in the scale can- 
not be assigned without uncertainty, on account of the 
mixture of characters whichit presents. The lower part 
of its legs is so long that some naturalists have placed it 
among the Waders ; but its thighs, entirely covered with 



296. How are they described ? 

297. What species are cited as examples ? 



172 ZOOLOGY. 

feathers, its hooked beak, and other details of its anatomy, 
concur to place it in the present order ; and it seems to 
rank between the vulture and falcon. It feeds exclusively 
upon reptiles, and especially serpents, offering no moles- 
tation to poultry or other warm-blooded animals ; and it 
pursues its prey on foot, striding over the ground like an 
ostrich. It chiefly inhabits the arid plains in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Cape of Good Hope. 

252. The family of Strigid^e, [from the Latin strix, 
an owl,] or Owl tribe, including all the nocturnal birds of 
prey, is characterized by the large proportion of the head 
to the body, and by the size of the eyes, which are sur- 
rounded by a fringe of feathers. Their soft downy plumage, 
too, may at once be distinguished from the firm and sharply- 
cut feathers of the diurnal Raptores. All these peculiari- 
ties have reference to their habits. The cavity of the 
brain is not proportionally larger than in other birds ; and 
the space between it and the exterior of the skull is oc- 
cupied by large cells, which communicate with the ear, 
and probably assist the sense of hearing. The size of the 
eyes, again, has an evident relation to the small amount 
of light in which they are usually to be employed ; the 
pupils are so large that the birds are dazzled in full day, 
and hence in part arises the stupid appearance which they 
exhibit. The fringe which surrounds them probably has 
for its object to prevent the interference of light from the 
sides, above, or below, and to enable them to concentrate 
their whole power of sight upon the object directly before 
them — as when we look through the hand contracted into 
a tube at some object which we desire to see more dis- 
tinctly. In the owls which are partly diurnal in their 
habits, this circular fringe is hardly perceptible. The 
owls seek their prey, not by the power of flight, but by 
stealing upon it unawares : hence the movement of their 
wings should be as noiseless as possible ; and this object 
is peculiarly answered by the downy character of the 
whole plumage, and by a particular arrangement of the 



298. What other varieties are here named ? 

299. Describe the structure of the Owl family. 



TKE BARN OWLS SCAXSORES. 173 

barbs of the feathers at the edge of the wings. The 
external toe, as in the osprey, can be directed backwards 
as well as forwards. Their period of activity being 
twilight, or during moonlight nights, that of their repose 
is during the day ; and, if then disturbed, they make the 
most ludicrous gestures, which seem principally intended, 
however, to enable them to get a clear view of the object 
which annoys them. Owls are feared by all smaller birds, 
which do not hesitate, however, to attack them during the 
day. Their food is wholly animal, consisting of mice, 
frogs, and other small terrestrial vertebrata, small birds, 
fish in some instances, and insects. 

253. The species composing the group of Owls, may 
be classed under three sections. The first is composed of 
those commonly termed Homed Owls, from the head being 
furnished with a pair of tufts of feathers longer than the 
rest, which are placed above the ears. These egrets, as 
they are termed, can be raised or lowered at will in many 
species. The European bubo, great-horned or eagle owl, 
is a characteristic example of this group ; it is one of the 
largest of nocturnal birds, being little smaller than the 
golden eagle ; it is very destructive to grouse, hares, and 
even fawns. It inhabits the mountainous parts of Europe, 
but is seldom seen in Britain. To this group also belongs 
the harpang or great snowy owl, which inhabits the north 
of both hemispheres, nestling on elevated rocks, and prey- 
ing on hares and game birds. Its head-tufts are small and 
inconspicuous, and it is more diurnal in its habits than 
most of the group. 

254. The second section contains all the tuftless Owls, 
with the exception of those constituting the genus Strix 
or Barn-door Owl, which differ from the rest in the ex- 
traordinary extension of the fringes of feathers surround- 
ing the eyes ; these form a sort of mask, giving to the 
physiognomy a most peculiar aspect. The species of this 
second section differ considerably amongst each other in 
their adaptation to diurnal or nocturnal habits. They are 
very widely diffused over almost all parts of the globe. 



300. What of their peculiar habits ? 
15* 



m 



ZOOhifGY. 



One of them is sufficiently active to pursue swallows on 
the wing; another inhabits the open prairies of America, 
abounding in the villages of the prairie marmots, and 
entering the burrows of the viscacha, one of the South 
America Rodentia. 




Barn Owl. 



255. The third section contains those which may pro- 
bably be regarded as the true types of this family, the Bam 
Owls, They seem to possess in a peculiar degree all 
those characteristics which constitute them nocturnal birds 
of prey ; and at the same time they differ most widely in 
the form of the beak from the diurnal Raptores ; this 
being long, and curved only at the end. The barn owl 
seems widely diffused over the globe ; but several species 
probably exist, differing but little from each other. They 



'J01 . What varieties of owls are described ? 



THE BARN OWLS SCANSORES. 175 

prefer habitations distant from the abode of man, nestling 
in old towers, hollow trees, and, where no such conveni- 
ences exist, in the burrows of quadrupeds. They some- 
times take up their abode in pigeon-houses, offering no 
molestation to the inhabitants. They easily become fami- 
liar, and are worthy of the protection of man, to whom 
they seldom do any injury, preying only on small quad- 
rupeds and insects. 

Order III. — Scansorcs [or climbing birds, from the Latin 
scando, 1 climb.] 

256. The peculiar disposition of the toes in the birds 
of this order, two being placed behind, and all four arising 
nearly on the same level, gives them great facility in 
climbing the branches of trees, but proportionally impedes 
their progression on level ground. By this character they 
may be readily distinguished from all other birds, not- 
withstanding many and striking variations in the form of 
the bill and wings. The nests of this order are generally 
less skilfully constructed than those of the Insessores ; 
and the birds often employ for this purpose the hollows in 
decayed trees ; one family is remarkable for depositing its 
eggs in the nest of other birds. Their flight is ordinarily 
but moderate. Their nourishment consists of insects and 
fruits; and the species feeding upon each may be distin- 
guished by the greater or less robustness of the beak. 
This order may be divided into the four following fami- 
lies ; — (i.) Picid,e, or Woodpeckers, which may be re- 
garded as the types of the order, presenting its peculiar 
characters in the highest degree, (n.) Cuculidje, or 
Cuckoos, (in.) Ramphastid^e, or Toucans, (iv.) Psit- 
tacid*:, or Parrots. This last family is separated from 
the rest by so many peculiarities, as almost to constitute a 
distinct order. 

257. (i.) The Picidje, [from the Latin picns, a wood- 
pecker,] are chiefly characterized by their long, straight, 
angular bill, the end of which is compressed into a wedge, 



302. What is said of barn owls ? 

303. How are (he climbing birds divided? 



176 



ZOOLOGY. 



adapted to perforate the bark of trees. The tongue is also 
of peculiar conformation, being worm-like in its shape, 
barbed at its point, and capable of being suddenly thrown 
out to a great length. By this mechanism the bird can 
introduce it into holes and crevices, or even under the 
loose bark of trees infected by those peculiar insects which 
it is its province to destroy ; and these they obtain, not 
only by transfixing them with the barbed point, but by 
causing them to adhere to it by means of a viscid glue 
with which it is covered. The feet of these birds are 
short but very strong ; the nails are broad and crooked. 
As an additional and powerful support in their rapid and 
perpendicular ascent up the trunks of trees, their tail- 
feathers are very firm, and terminate in points ; so that 
this member, being pressed against the bark, is of assist- 
ance to the bird in maintaining its perpendicular attitude. 
The woodpeckers are shy and wary ; they pass the 
greater part of their time solitarily ; and at the pairing 
season they communicate with each other, not by song, 
but by rattling the beak against a dead branch. 

258. The species of this family are extremely numer- 
ous, and are generally distributed over tl e globe, with 
the exception of Australia. Some of them are exclusively 
restricted to insects, which they obtain in the manner just 
stated. Others descend occasionally, and feed at ant-hills. 
Others, again, which never descend to the ground, feed 
much on nuts and acorns. Nearly allied to the wood- 
peckers, both in structure and mode of life, are the Wru* 
necks. They seldom climb, however, and feed principally 
on ants. Their flight is swifter than that of the wood- 
peckers. One species, which is common in Britain as a 
southern visitant, is coloured in such a manner as to 
resemble a branch partly encrusted with lichens ; and it 
thus escapes observation even when very near. Instinc- 
tively trusting to this means of concealment, it will lie 
close, and sometimes even suffer itself to be taken by the 
hand ; it will then twist its neck in the most extraordinary 



304. What of the structure and habits of woodpeckers ? 

305. Describe the wry -necks ? 



SCANSORES — THE CUCKOOS, COUAS, &C. 177 

manner (whence its name), and perform other ludicrous 
movements ; then, taking advantage of the surprise of the 
spectator, it will dart off like an arrow. 

259. (n.) The Cuculid^e, or Cuckoo tribe, are a numer- 
ous and diversified race, spread over all the temperate 
regions of the globe. They are principally distinguished 
by the short and slender make of the feet, of which one 
of the back toes can be occasionally brought forwards. 
The beak is of mean length, slightly arched and com- 
pressed at its sides. Most of this family are migratory, 
and scarcely any build nests of their own. They fly 
rapidly, and subsist upon insects and fruits. The common 
cuckoo has long been celebrated for its habit of depositing 
its eggs in the nests of other birds, generally insectivorous 
species ; and, what is more extraordinary, the foster 
parents, often of species inferior in size, b.*sto\v as much 
care upon the young cuckoo as upon their own proper 
nestlings, even though the rearing of this involves the 
destruction of their own young. For, if other eggs are 
hatched with that of the young cuckoo, the latter speedily 
ejects the rightful tenants from the nest, and receives ail 
the attention of their parents. If it were not for this, it 
must speedily perish for want, from the frequency and 
urgency of its demands for food, and its incapability of 
assisting itself, up to an advanced age. The cuckoo feeds 
principally on caterpillars, and also devours cherries and 
the smaller fruits; it is sometimes seen to pursue insects 
on the wing. It is an unsocial bird, seldom congregating 
with its species, except at the time of migration. 

260. The foregoing peculiarities, however, do not exist 
in all of this family. The couas of America, also called 
row-birds from their peculiar note, nestle in the holes of 
trees, and do not intrust the charge of their eggs to 
strangers ; they have very feeble powers of flight ; and, 
like the truly scansorial birds, feed entirely on insects, 
which they obtain on the branches of trees. The coucals 
of Africa and India, on the other hand, live more upon 
the ground, feeding chiefly upon grasshoppers, and run- 



306. What of the Cuckoo tribe ? 



ITS ZOOLOGY. 

ning with celerity among reeds and other herbage, from 
which they are slow to take wing. To this family also 
belong the indicators, or honey-guides, of South Africa, 
which themselves feed on honey, and are celebrated for 
guiding the natives to the nests of wild-bees, enticing them 
to the spot by flitting before them, and reiterating a pecu- 
liar cry. Sometimes, however, they conduct their followers 
in this manner to a spot where a beast of prey lies con- 
cealed. The ani are birds of hot and humid climates of 
America, which differ considerably from the cuckoos, but 
yet are more nearly allied to them than to any other family, 
though they have also an affinity with the next. They 
subsist on insects and grain, fly in pairs, and several 
pairs lay and incubate in the same nest, which is placed 
on the branches of trees, and is built of a size proportionate 
to the number of couples which help to construct it. 
Their sociality when brooding seems partly due to their 
extreme sensitiveness to cold. 

2(51. (in.) the Ramphastid,e, [from the Greek, ram- 
phos, a beak,] or Toucan tribe, are easily recognised by 
the enormous size of the bill, which is nearly as large and 
long as the body itself, but internally very light and cel- 
lular ; its edges are toothed, and both mandibles are 
arched towards the tip. The tongue is narrow and 
elongated, and laterally barbed like a feather. Their feet 
are formed more for grasping than climbing; accordingly, 
they always live among trees, and proceed by hopping 
from branch to branch. So light and elegant are their 
movements, that in the living bird, in its natural situation, 
the disproportionateness of the bill does not attract obser- 
vation. Its large size is to give a more extensive distribu- 
tion to the nerves of smell, for the purpose of enabling the 
birds to discover their food, which consists chiefly of the 
eggs and young of other birds, and also to enable them to 
obtain it, by dipping it into the deep hanging nests which 
abound in their natural abodes, for which purpose its sur- 
face is endowed with considerable sensibility, enabling it 



307. What exceptions are there to these peculiarities ? 

308. What varieties in this family ? 



SCANSORES THE PARROTS. 179 

to feel the contents of these nests. The size of the bilf 
prevents their swallowing their food in the usual manner, 
and they accordingly throw it into the air and catch it in 
the throat as it descends — a habit practised by many other 
birds also, in which the tongue is unusually short, or of a 
form unfit to assist in swallowing. Toucans are mostly 
large-sized birds, and clothed with brilliant plumage. 
They are peculiar to the warm regions of America, where 
they live in small flocks, different species often associating 
together. They nestle in the trunks of trees. 

202. (iv.) The Psittacid^e, or Parrots, constitute a 
family which is very widely diffused through the torrid 
zone in both new and old continents, and is scarcely found 
beyond it. It contains a large number of species, each 
of which has its peculiar locality, the short wings of these 
birds not enabling them to traverse large tracts of sea. 
They correspond with the other Scansores in little else 
than the structure of the foot, and this is formed rather for 
grasping than for climbing. It is also used for conveying 
food to the mouth, a peculiarity nowhere else seen but in 
the goat-suckers. Their beak is stout, hard, and solid, 
curved and pointed very much as in the diurnal birds of 
prey, which they may perhaps be regarded as connecting 
with this order. They subsist, however, upon vegetable 
food at all ages, and have a peculiar provision for supply- 
ing their young, analogous to that which will be described 
as possessed by the pigeons. Their jaws are set in 
motion by a greater variety of muscles than are found in 
other birds. Their tongue is thick, fleshy, and rounded ; 
and their larynx, or organ of voice, is more complicated 
than in other birds — by which peculiarities they gain 
their facility of imitating the human voice as well as other 
sounds. Their voice in a state of nature, however, is 
loud and harsh. They use their crooked bills in clamber- 
ing upon trees, and nestle in hollow trunks. They subsist 
upon the succulent parts of vegetables, especially bulbs 
and fruits. They are distinguished from the rest of the 
scansorial birds by their intelligence and docility, qualities 

309. Describe the Toucan tribe. 



180 



ZOOLOGY. 



in which some species are unsurpassed by any members 
of the class. 

203. The Parrot tribe, nearly all of which are adorned 
with gorgeous colours, has been distinguished, chiefly 
by peculiarities of plumage, into many subdivisions, the 
limits of which, however, are mostly arbitrary. The true 
parrots are square-tailed, and have no crests. They are 
found in both the old and new continents, and are more 
easily taught to speak than others of the family. The 
cockatoos are also square-tailed, but have crests upon 
their heads. The white ones inhabit the Indian archi- 
pelago and Australia ; they are singularly gentle and 
affectionate, and easily maintained in captivity in Europe. 
There is a large black cockatoo in Australia, with a bill 
of extraordinary strength, and wings capable of vigorous 
flight, which is not susceptible of the same domestication. 
The love-birds are a beautiful group, found in both con- 
tinents, nearly allied to the parrots, but of diminutive size. 
The parroquets have a long pointed tail, and chiefly in- 
habit the Asiatic continent and islands, and Australia. 
An American species of parroquet is the only member of 
the parrot tribe found to the northward of the tropic of 
Cancer. The macaws are a long-tailed American species, 
which exceed all the rest in size, and are superbly coloured. 
The lories are oriental species, with square tails and 
dense soft plumage, the colours of which are glowing in 
the highest degree ; the beak is in general comparatively 
feeble, and they feed upon the juices of flowers and the 
pulp of the softest fruits. 

Order IV. — Rasores, [or scratching birds.] 

204. This order, corresponding with the Gallinacex or 
poultry tribes, consists of birds with bulky bodies, and 
essentially formed to live upon dry ground. They are 
the most easily domesticated of the whole class ; they fur- 
nish man with a considerable amount of savoury and 
wholesome food, and their fecundity is very great. The 



310. What of the Parrot group I 

311. What variety ofparrotl is cited? 



RASORES PHEASANT OR FOWL TRIBE. 181 

majority of them are at once known by their strong- thick 
legs, long necks, short wings, and large ample tails ; and 
the heads of many, especially of the males, are ornamented 
with elegant crests. The form of the bill is well seen in 
the common cock ; the upper mandible is vaulted, and, 
at the same time, destitute of any notch ; the whole is 
short and strong, having a peculiarly horny appearance. 
The wings are muscular, but their feathers have rounded 
ends ; and the breast-bone presents a much smaller sur- 
face for the attachment of the muscles than in the previous 
orders, so that the power of flight is comparatively small. 
Their food, with few exceptions, is entirely vegetable, and 
their chief support is derived from the seeds and grains 
of various plants. Many of them eat also the green por- 
tions, and are in this respect nearly peculiar among birds. 
Almost all of them have a large crop and an extremely 
muscular gizzard. 

265. The Rasores are mostly social birds, and are 
readily domesticable. In general they deposit and hatch 
their eggs on the ground, in a rudely-constructed nest of 
straw, but some of them, which reside in forests, build in 
trees. Each male usually associates with many females ; 
he takes no part in the construction of the nest or in rear- 
ing the young, and these are generally numerous and 
able to run about and provide for themselves the moment 
they quit the shell. When this is the case, the male is 
larger and more gaily coloured than the female. But in 
the few species which associate in pairs, such as the 
ptarmigan and partridge, the sexes nearly or quite resem- 
ble each other, both in size and colour. 

266. From the strong resemblance which subsists 
among all the birds of this order, the division of them into 
families is difficult. The following may be regarded as 
the most natural distribution of them into groups : — 
(i.) Phasianid^, Pheasant and Fowl tribe, distinguished 
by the shortness of the hind toe, the presence of spurs on 
the legs, and the beautiful development of the tail. 



312. Describe the order of Scratchers. 

313. What is said of their habits? 

16 



1S2 ZOOLOGY. 

(n.) Cracid^e, or Curasow-birris, a tribe of poultry re- 
stricted to America, the legs of which are destitute of 
spurs, and the hind toe so much developed, as to give 
considerable power of perching. (in.) Tetraonidje, 
Partridge tribe, having a very short hind toe, and also 
very short tails. (tv.) Columbid^e, the Pigeon tribe, 
which are much isolated from the rest, and may be re- 
garded as in some respects allied to the Insessores. From 
the well-known character of most of these birds, the de- 
scription of the families need not be detailed. 

267. (i.) The whole of the PhasianiDjE, with the ex- 
ception of the turkey, are restricted to the Old World. 
The characters by which they are known from the other 
families, are those which peculiarly distinguish the order; 
hence there can be no hesitation in regarding this family 
as its type. It is in the hotter parts of Asia that the most 
brilliantly coloured birds of this family present themselves 
in the greatest numbers. The peacock, for example, 
abounds in the forests of India ; and the wild specimens 
even surpass the domestic ones in brilliancy. It was in- 
troduced into Europe by Alexander the Great. The plu- 
mage of the impeyan, also a native of the North of India, 
resembles that of the humming-birds upon a large scale ; 
it can only be compared to the most refulgent hues of 
variously coloured and finely polished metals. The 
turkey* are the only representatives of this group in the 
New World, whence they were brought by the early dis- 
coverers, and are now quite naturalized in Europe. A 
more splendid species than the common one has been lately 
discovered in the Bay of Honduras. The guinea-fowl 
is oripinally a native of Africa, where it lives in large 
flocks, in the neighbourhood of marshes. Its noisy and 
querulous disposition renders it incommodious in poultry- 
yards, although its flesh is excellent. Of our common 
fowls, the original stock, like that of most domesticated 
races, is obscure ; but it was probably a species of gallu*, 
inhabiting Java or Sumatra. The pheasants were origi- 

314 How are they divided into groups ? 
315. What of the Pheasant tribe? 



RA80RES — THE GROUSE. \H*l 

nnlly brought from the banks of the Phasis in Asia-Minor; 
several very handsome species abound in different parts 
-ia. Among these, one of the most remarkable is the 
JIt^u* pheasant, inhabiting Sumatra and the south-east 
of Asia. The wings are large, and are covered with eye- 
like spots, which give a very remarkable appearance to 
the bird. There is a large poultry bird in New Holland, 
which has been sometimes placed among the vultures, 
but which certainly belongs to this order. This is the 
uultern ; its chief point of resemblance to the vultures is 
its bald neck ; it has also some affinity with the next 
group, especially in the absence of spurs and the size of 
the hind toe 

% 26S. (n.) The Cracid^e, which are restricted to Ame- 
rica, offer a remarkable contrast, in their plain colours, 
to the brilliant plumage of the Asiatic races which occur 
in nearly the same parallels of latitude. They are equally 
capable of domestication with the fowls ; and their flesh 
is of excellent quality. The curasows are about the size 
of a turkey, and are handsome birds, having the head 
adorned with crests of long, narrow, erectible feathers, 
curled at the tips. They commonly perch upon trees. 
The guans are still more arboreal in their habits. So 
many varieties of colour are found among them, that it is 
difficult to trace the limits of the different species. The 
hoazin is a South American bird, which derives its sub- 
sistence almost exclusively from foliage, and chiefly from 
the leaves of a species of arum growing in marshy places. 
The toes, unlike those of all other gallinaceous birds, are 
destitute of any connecting membrane. 

269. (hi.) The Tetraonid^e, or Grouse tribe, also differ 
strongly from the Phasianidas, in the comparative dullness 
of their plumage, as well as in the extreme shortness of the 
tail. The grouse are formed to inhabit cold climates, and 
are found in Europe, Asia, and North America. The 
largest species, commonly known as the capercailzie, is the 
largest of the true poultry, surpassing the turkey in size. 



316. What varieties are here cited ? 

317. How are the Curasows described ? 



184 ZOOLOGY. 

It particularly feeds on pine shoots. These birds strut 
with outspread tail in the manner of the turkeys, and are 
polygamous. The ptarmigan live in pairs, and do not 
strut in this manner ; the more generally diffused species 
become white in winter ; there is one species peculiar to 
Britain, however — the moor-fowl or red grouse — which 
does not change. Nearly all the grouse have the toes and 
legs more or less covered with soft feathers — a character 
which disappears in the Partridges, an extensive group, 
scattered in nearly all parts of the Old World, but un- 
known in the New. In the Quails, we have the miniature 
resemblance of partridges, but the tail is so short as to be 
nearly imperceptible. There is in tropical America a 
singular race of birds, called Tinamous by the Brazilians: 
they have scarcely any tail ; the body is thick ; and the 
whole appearance reminds us of a pigmy bustard. These 
birds live among herbage, and feed upon fruits and insects. 
Their flesh forms an excellent article of food. 

270. (iv.) The family of Columbidje, containing a large 
number of elegant and lovely birds, appears as much iso- 
lated from the rest as the Parrots are from the Scansores. 
Although it is particularly numerous, and spread over 
every part of the world, there is no difficulty in distin- 
guishing its members from all other birds. One of their 
chief peculiarities is the double dilatation of the crop, which 
expands on each side of the gullet ; and the young are fed 
with grain disgorged from this receptacle by the parent, 
and impregnated with a secretion which it forms. These 
birds live invariably in pairs ; they nestle in trees, or in 
the holes of rocks, and lay but few eggs, though they 
breed often. This family includes the whole of the well- 
known tribe of Pigeons and Doves. Some of the tropi- 
cal species are of considerable size, and of very rich plu- 
mage. The common dovecot pigeon is probably derived 
from the rock pigeon, which naturally breeds principally 
among the sea-cliffs, and but sparingly inland. But the 
ringed pigeon is of a different stock ; and though it chiefly 



318. What of the Grouse or partridge family ? 
3iy. Name the varieties cited. 



RASORES THE PASSENGER PIGEON. 185 

frequents the districts cultivated by man, it resists his 
nearer approach. The carrier-pigeon is not a distinct 
species, but only a variety of the common one which has 
undergone a particular training; and it is probable 'that 
other varieties might be similarly trained. Advantage is 
taken of their fondness for home : being carried out in a 
basket to a short distance, and then let go, they generally 
return directly thither ; the distance is gradually increased 
to a few miles, and then to a much greater extent. By 
means of these birds, intelligence has been conveyed eighty 
miles in three hours ; but they are now much less used 
for the purpose than formerly. 

871. The passenger-pigeon is a native of North Ame- 
rica, where it breeds in such immense numbers as to 
darken the air for a considerable period when the flock 
takes to flight, and to destroy all the herbage where they 
settle. Wilson and Audubon, each in his own felicitous 
manner, have described the comings and goings of these 
countless swarms — the eclipsed sun, the rushing roar, the 
crash of broken trees as they alight, the report of fire-arms, 
the shouts of the people, the howls of the wild beasts, the 
eagles and vultures, the greedy hogs, and the unimagina- 
ble confusion and uproar attending such scenes as these. 
To give some idea of the abundance of these birds, both 
of these eminent naturalists have made a rough compu- 
tation of the number contained in particular flocks seen by 
them. Wilson makes his flock to contain above two hun- 
dred thousand million pigeons. Audubon supposed one bil- 
lion one hundred and fifteen millions to have been contained 
in the flock seen by him ; and the quantity of food ne- 
cessary for this single flock to be nearly nine millions of 
bushels per day. The mind is unable to form an idea 
commensurate with these vast numbers of living beings, 
except in regard to the space occupied by them. Wilson 
speaks of them as flying so closely together, that, if shot 
could have reached them, one discharge could not have 
failed of bringing down several individuals ; and there 



320. What of the pigeon iribe ? 

321. What varieties are described? 

Hi* 



18(5 ZOOLOGY. 

appeared to be many strata of them, one over the other 
From right to left, as far as the eye could reach, the 
breadth of this vast procession extended, seeming every- 
where equally crowded. The length of it may be judged 
of by the fact, that, although the birds were flying with 
great steadiness and rapidity, the passage of the main 
body occupied more than six hours, and large detached 
masses continued to follow at short intervals for two hours 
longer. 

Order V. — Cursores, [or running birds.] 

272. This order contains a small number of species, 
differing so considerably from one another, that almost 
every one may be regarded as belonging to a different 
family, and yet all agreeing in one characteristic — the non- 
development of the wings, and the enormous size and 
power of their legs — by which they seem justly separated 
from all other orders of birds. They may be regarded as 
in many respects intermediate between the Rasores and 
Grallatores ; but they also present many remarkable 
points of approximation to the Mammalia. The most 
obvious of these are the loss of the powers of flight, and 
the dependence on the legs alone for locomotion ; and the 
deficiency (most conspicuous in the cassowary) of barbs 
upon the feathers, so that they much resemble hair. In 
their internal structure, moreover, similar approximations 
exist : thus the ostrich has the rudiment both of a dia- 
phragm and urinary bladder, which organs are wanting in 
other birds, whilst all Mammalia possess them. 

27;*. Although destitute of the powers of flight, wings 
exist in an undeveloped or rudimentary state : and it has 
been observed that, when the ostrich is running, its smail 
anterior members execute analogous motions, which seem 
to assist it. Their muscles, however, requiring but little 
strength, the sternum has no prominent keel, but is flat 
as in man ; whilst, on the other hand, the muscles of the 
posterior extremities are of enormous size and power. 



322. What of the passenger pigeon ? 

323. Describe the running biros. 



CURSORES OSTRICH. 



187 



Only five genera are at present known to exist in this 
order ; and of one more, which seems now extinct, re- 
mains are preserved to us which indicate its existence 
two centuries since. Each of these merits a separate 
notice. 

274. The struthio, or ostrich, is a well-known bird in 
the tropical parts of the eastern hemisphere ; its feathers 
do not differ so widely from other birds as do those of the 
cassowary, being furnished with barbs ; but these do not 
adhere to one another, so that no continuous resisting sur- 
face is formed. Still the 
wings present sufficient 
expanse to assist the bird 
in running, which move- 
ment it executes so swift- 
ly that scarcely any ani- 
mal can overtake it. The 
true ostrich has only two 
toes on each foot ; of 
which the outer one is 
one-half shorter than the 
other, and is destitute of 
a nail. It chiefly inhabits 
the sandy deserts of Ara- 
bia and Africa, living in large flocks, and attaining the 
height of six feet and a half. It subsists chiefly on grain 
and herbage, and frequently swallows also a large quan- 
tity of hard substances, such as pebbles, pieces of metal, 
&c, which are probably taken to assist in the trituration 
of the food. Its eggs, which weigh nearly three pounds 
each, are left, when the animal inhabits the hottest parts 
of Africa, to be hatched by the solar heat alone ; but, in 
extra-tropical regions, the ostrich incubates them, and de- 
fends them with courage. It is said to be the male that 
chiefly performs this duty. 

275. The rhea, American ostrich, or naudon, is about 
half the size of the African ostrich, and more thinly co- 




Foot of Ostrich. 



324. Into how many genera is this order divided ? 

325. What of the structuie and habns of the ostrich ? 



188 



ZOOLOGY. 



vered with feathers. It is distinguished by possessing 
three toes to each foot. Two species exist, one inhabiting 
the central parts of South America, where it is as abun- 
dant in some localities as the ostrich in Africa ; and the 
other in Patagonia, where it is rare. The naudon is 
easily tamed when young, and its flesh is eaten : it has 
been observed to swim with facility. 

276. The casuarius, or cassowary, has wings shorter 
than those of the ostrich, and quite useless in aiding pro- 
gression. Besides the peculiarity of the feather, which 
has been already mentioned as giving it the appearance 




The Cassowary. 

of hair, there is another, consisting in the great develop- 
ment of the accessory plwne, so that two or even three 
equal stems appear to grow from the same quill. In its 
general form and aspect it much resembles the ostrich, but 
differs in the structure of its digestive organs. The head 
is surmounted by a bony prominence, covered with horn. 
Tht skin of the head and neck is bare of feathers, and of a 



326. Wh ; ol the American ostrich? 



v I RSOKES -1'HK APT URYX. 189 

bright blue and flame colour ; it is furnished with wattles, 
like those of the turkey-cock, which change colour under 
the same circumstances. It lives on fruit and eggs, but 
not on grain. It is an inhabitant of the Indian archi- 
pelago, and is the largest-bodied of birds, next to the 
ostrich. 

277. The dromaius, or emu, is a native of New Hol- 
land, and is closely allied to the cassowary ; but its plum- 
age is more dense, from its feathers being more barbed. 
Its flesh resembles beef; and it is swifter in its movements 
than the fleetest greyhound. Either this or probably an 
allied species, formerly existed in New Zealand, as is 
proved by the remains of bones which have been found 
there ; but it seems to have been extirpated by the 
natives. 

278. The apteryx of New Zealand appears, of all birds, 
to have the wings reduced to the most simple rudiments ; 
and it presents, at the same time, many points of approxi- 
mation to the Mammalia. It has a complete diaphragm, 




The Apteryx. 

and no air-cells exist in its abdomen; nor are any of its 
bones hollow. The bill is long and slender ; the rudiments 
of wings are terminated by a sharp hook, which seems to 
be an important organ of defence ; the feet have three 
toes in front, and the rudiment of a fourth behind, the 
claw of which is alone externally visible. The size of this 



327. Describe the structure of the cassowary. 

328. What is the next genus, and its characteristics ? 



190 



ZOOLOGY. 



bird is about that of a domestic fowl, and its colour a deep 
brown. It runs with rapidity, and defends itself vigor- 
ously with its feet. It is nocturnal in its time of action, 
and subsists on insects. Its native name is kivi-kivi, de- 
rived from its cry. 

279. With this group is probably to be associated the 
dodo, now known to us only by some very imperfect re- 
mains, and by the paintings and descriptions of naturalists 




The Dodo. 

nearly two centuries since, when it seems to have existed 
in the islands on the eastern coast of Africa, especially 
Madagascar ; though no traces of it can now be found 
there. A foot preserved in the British Museum, and a 
head in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, are all the ; 
actual remains of it now existing. It would appear, 
however, from the records of the latter museum, that an 
entire specimen formerly existed in it, which was allowed 
to decay, and its remains to be lost, with the exception ol 
this head. There is also a picture, copied by Edwards. 



329. Describe the structure ol the apteryx. 



GRALLATORES, OR STILT-BIRDS. 191 

an eminent ornithological artist of the middle of the last 
century, from a Dutch painting- said to have been made 
from the living bird in the early times of the discovery of 
the Indies by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. From 
this picture only, the accompanying representation, and 
all the figures that are extant of the dodo (except those 
copied from still more imperfect delineations, of which a suffi- 
cient number exist to confirm the general correctness of this) 
are derived. The opinions of the most eminent naturalists 
concur in regarding the preserved head and foot as differ- 
ent from those of any existing bird, and as corresponding 
in character with those represented in the picture ; but 
upon the place of this remarkable species in the class 
there is considerable difference of opinion. From the in- 
sufficiency of the wings for the purposes of flight, the 
dodo should probably take its station among the Cursores; 
but in its general structure and economy, it seems from 
traditionary accounts to have been more allied to the 
Rasores. Others, however, regard it as a bird of prey. 

2h0. As to the cause of the entire disappearance of the 
species from the islands where it seems to have been 
once abundant, we can only conjecture. It is spoken of 
as an excellent article of food ; and, from its incapability 
of flight, joined to the shortness of its legs, it would fall 
an easy prey to its pursuers. Hence it was not impro- 
bably exterminated by the first settlers in the Mauritius 
and Bourbon — the islands where it seems chiefly to have 
abounded. Whether or not it yet exists in the adjacent 
parts of the African continent, is a question that cannot 
be determined until these parts have been more thoroughly 
explored. 

Order VI. — Grallatores, or wading birds. 

281. The Grallatores, Waders or Stilt-birds, derive 
their name from their habits and conformation. Their 
long legs raise up their bodies as it were upon stilts ; and, 
thus elevated, they frequent the banks of rivers and lakes, 



330. What of the dodo and its remains ? 

331. Whence is the picture derived ? 



192 ZOOLOGY. 

marshes, the shores of estuaries; and, whilst resting with 
their feet upon the land, derive their nourishment chiefly 
from the water — some feeding exclusively upon small 
fishes, aquatic mollusca, worms, small reptiles, and water 
insects — whilst others are of more terrestrial habits and 
food. Such as are more especially aquatic have a short 
web to their toes. Their wings are long, affording them 
the power of changing their habitation with the seasons, 
which most of them enjoy. During flight, they stretch out 
their long legs behind, to counterbalance their long necks ; 
and the tail is always extremely short, its function as a 
rudder being transferred to the legs. They mostly con- 
struct or choose their nests upon the ground ; and the 
young are enabled to run about as soon as hatched, except 
in those species which live in pairs. The Waders are 
remarkable for their power of preserving a motionless 
position upon one leg for a considerable time. 

282. The Waders may be grouped together under four 
families, principally characterized by the form of the 
beak : — (i.) Ardeid^e, the Heron tribe, in which the beak 
is long, thick, and stout, and has usually cutting edges, 
as well as a point, (n.) Scolopacid^e, the Snipe and 
Woodcock tribe, in which the bill is long, slender, and 
feeble, (m.) Rallid^e, the Bail and Coot tribe, in which 
the bill is less slender ; but the chief character is derived 
from the extreme length of the toes, (iv.) The Chara- 
driadje, or Plover tribe, in which the bill is of moderate 
size, and the back toe either entirely absent, or not long 
enough to reach the ground. 

283. (i.) The family of Ardeid^e includes the Cranes 
and Storks besides the true Herons. By the Cranes this 
order is connected with the last, for nearly all of them are 
large birds, with short powerless wings ; their necks long 
and frequently naked, and their habits more terrestrial 
than those of any of their congeners. They feed almost 
exclusively upon vegetables ; and have a muscular giz- j 
zard. Most of them live in warm latitudes ; and those j 



332. What of the structure and hahits of the Waders ? 

333. Into what families are they divided \ 



GRALLATORES THE HERONS. 19ft 

which frequent Europe migrate southwards in the autumn 
and return in the spring. The common European species 
sometimes appears as a straggler in Britain. A very 
curious bird, which seems intermediate between the fowls 
and cranes, is known in South America under the name 
of a g ami ; it is also called trumpeter, from the low deep 
sound which it produces. It is readily domesticated, and 
becomes attached to individuals like a dog ; and is put in 
charge of other poultry. It flies badly, but runs with 
great swiftness. 

284. The Herons differ from the cranes in being de- 
cidedly carnivorous ; they are known by a larger and 
more pointed bill, and by the greater length of their legs. 
Their stomach is a large undivided sac, but slightly mus- 
cular. As a whole, they are the most beautiful of all the 
Waders ; not so much, however, on account of the colours 
of their plumage, as from the elegant crests and prolonged 
feathers which ornament nearly all the species. They 
build in societies, usually in trees in the neighbourhood 
of banks of rivers ; but generally feed and live solitarily. 
They are chiefly supported by fish, for which they watch 
in some concealed situation, transfixing them as they pass 
with their long and sharp bills. To the tribe of herons 
belong the egrets and bitterns, of both of which there are 
species indigenous to Britain. The boathills resemble 
the herons in most respects, but differ remarkably in the 
form of the bill, which is shaped something like a boat 
with the keel uppermost. The spoonbills have a form 
of bill somewhat similar ; but they more resemble the 
storks in general conformation. They live upon small 
fish and aquatic insects, which they turn up and catch 
with this peculiar instrument. The storks are less aquatic 
in their habits than the rest of the family, nestling by pre- 
ference on towers and chimney-stacks ; each pair return- 
ing to the same place in the spring, after having passed the 
winter in Africa. The common white stork of Europe is 
held in much popular respect, owing to its utility in de- 



334. Describe the first family, and their varieties. 

335. What of the herons, and the differences ? 

17 



194 



ZOOLOGY. 



stroying snakes and other noxious animals ; but in Eng- 
land, almost every one that shows itself is shot, whence 
the species is very uncommon. Allied to the storks are 
the adjutants of tropical coun- 
tries, which are very voracious 
and daring in their habits. 
They feed upon reptiles, fishes, 
small quadrupeds, and birds, 
even pursuing the last upon 
the wing; but they do not 
attack any large warm-blooded 
animals. They do not fear 
the vicinity of man, and are 
very common in Indian towns, 
where they are extremely use- 
ful in devouring all kinds of 
ofTal. They are large birds ; 
the Indian species measur- 
ing six feet in height as it 
usually stands, and seven 
when it stretches the neck — 
the expanse of the wings 
being fifteen feet. With the 
cranes are also probably to be associated the ibises, of 
which one species was held sacred by the ancient Egyp- 
tians, and was embalmed after death. This degree of 
respect arose, according to some, from its devouring ser- 
pents, which would otherwise have multiplied to a noxious 
extent in the country whilst others ascribe it to the fact 
that its appearance announced the overflow of the Nile. 
There is a beautiful scarlet ibis, inhabiting tropical Ame- 
rica, which is easily domesticated. 

285. (n.) The Scolopacid^e, or Snipe tribe, charac- 
terized by their long, slender, and feeble bill, which only 
enables them to bore in the mud in search of worms and 
small insects, have all nearly the same conformation, the 
same habits, and the same distribution of colours ; so that 
it is difficult to distinguish amongst them. They are also 




Indian Adjutant. 



336. Describe the storks, and their variety 



GRALLATORES THE STILTS AND AVOCETS. 



192 



remarkable for the delicacy of their legs, and the small- 
ness of the hinder toe. They run with vast celerity, and 
have considerable powers of flight ; and they have also 
the faculty, in part, both of swimming and diving. The 
females are usually larger than the males, and lay their 
eggs on the ground, in- little or no nest. Their geographic 
dispersion is as wide as their locomotive powers are great. 
The shores of every part of the world abound with sand- 
pipers and curlews; whilst snipes, woodcocks, &c, fre- 
quent the inland waters and marshy grounds. The men- 
tion of these well-known species is nearly sufficient to 
characterize the family ; but a few others may also be 
noticed. 

280. The god wits have a more attenuated form and 
longer legs than the snipes ; they chiefly frequent salt- 
marshes and the borders of the 
ocean, but will pick up and 
subsist on barley, upon which 
numbers are fed that are brought 
from Holland to the London 
market. The stilts surpass all 
the rest of this family, ami pro- 
bably therefore all other birds, 
in the length and slenderness 
of their legs. Allied to them 
are the avocets, which present 
several interesting peculiarities 
of conformation. Their feet, 
which are webbed nearly to the 
ends of their toes, almost entitle 
them to rank amongst the swim- 
ming-birds; but the length and 
nakedness of their legs, and 
their long, slender, smooth, and 
elastic bill, and the mode of life which results from this 
conformation, concur to approximate them to the snipes. 
They are peculiarly distinguished from all other birds 
(except two species of humming-bird) by the upward cur- 




Stilt. 



337. W hat of ihe structure and habits of Snipes ? 



190 ZOOLOGY. 

vature of their beak, the mandibles of which have been 
compared to two thin slips of whalebone. The European 
avocet frequents the sea-shore, where it feeds by scooping 
with its singular bill ; it draws this through the sand, 
from side to side, as it advances, seizing whatever living 
prey is thus met with. 

287. The Rallid^e, or Rail tribe, are furnished with 
very long toes, for traversing aquatic herbage ; and they are 
even useful in swimming, especially in some species in 
which their surface is extended by a border of membrane. 
They are also distinguished by the form of the body, 
which is very thin and narrow — a structure adapted to 
their habits and mode of life, since they live, for the most 
part, in the thick and tangled recesses of the reeds and 
aquatic vegetables which clothe the sides of rivers and 
morasses. Their wings are short, or of moderate length, 
and their flight feeble ; but they run with considerable 
swiftness. They are, for the most part, solitary and timid 
birds, hiding themselves at the least approach of danger, 
but quitting their semi-aquatic retreats morning and even- 
ing, to feed in more open spots. The flesh of these birds 
is delicate ; and, as they live chiefly upon aquatic seeds 
and vegetable aliment, they may be regarded as aquatic 
Gallinacese. By the peculiar form of their bodies, and 
their powers of running, they are able to make their way 
through dense masses of reeds and high grass, with so 
much facility as to escape even after being desperately 
wounded. The females are mostly larger than the males, 
and exceed them also in brightness of colouring. The 
rails, coots, and crakes, are the chief British species of 
this family, and are sufficiently characteristic of it. 

288. Under this family are placed two remarkable birds, 
the place of which is rather doubtful. One is the jacana, 
which is distinguished from all other stilt-birds by the 
length of all four toes, and the length also of their claws, 
especially that on the back toe. It is a noisy and quarrel- 
some bird, inhabiting the marshes of hot climates, where 

338. What varieties are here described ? 

339. Describe the Rail tribe and their habits. 



GRALLATORES — Till: FLAMINGO. 197 

it walks with facility on the floating leaves of aquatic plants, 
by means of its long toes. In many points of its anatomy it 
is allied to the preceding family. The other is the fla- 
mingo, which is perhaps rather to be considered as one of the 




The Flamingo. 

duck tribe, with an inordinately long neck and legs. The 
front toes are webbed to their ends, and the hind toe is 
extremely short. The mandibles are suddenly bent down- 
wards, about the middle of their length ; and they are 
roughened at the edges, like those of the ducks, to which 
the fleshiness of the tongue also shows an alliance. They 
feed on mollusca, insects, the spawn of fishes, &c, which 
they seize by means of their long neck, turning the head 
downwards, to use to advantage the crook in the upper 
mandible. They construct their nest in marshy situations, 
placing themselves astride of them during the act of incu- 



340. Describe the jacana and its habits. 

341. What is said of the flamingo ? 

17* 



198 ZOOLOGY. 

bation, being incapacitated by the length of their legs from 
sitting on them in the usual manner. 

289. (iv.) The Charadriad^, or Plover tribe, are less 
aquatic than most of the other families. The legs are 
long, and the back toe is either quite absent, or so short 
as not to reach the ground. They live only on sandy and 
unsheltered shores, or on exposed commons, congregating 
in flocks, and running with great swiftness. The bill is 
usually of moderate strength, enabling these birds to pene- 
trate the ground in search of worms, to obtain which they 
have the habit of patting with their feet, which causes the 
worms to rise. The species in which the bill is more 
feeble, frequent meadows and newly ploughed land, where 
this food can be obtained with greater ease ; those which 
have stronger bills subsist additionally on grain, herbage, 
&c. Of the plovers, several species exist in Britain, and 
others are distributed through most other countries. Some 
chiefly frequent the sea-coast, and others the upland 
moors. The Lapwings are nearly allied to the plovers, 
and like them are migratory, passing the wjnter in warm 
latitudes ; they are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. 
They are very noisy birds, screaming at every sound they 
hear, and defending themselves with courage against birds 
of prey. They derive their name from the stratagem by 
which they lure away intruders from their nests ; they 
drop their wings in flight, appearing as if wounded, and 
thus induce their pursuers to follow them to a considerable 
distance. 

290. Three other genera of this family are worthy of 
notice. The Bus/ards connect the Grallatores with the 
Rasores, in the heaviness of their bodies, the small mem- 
brane at the base of their toes, and some other characters. 
They have, however, the long naked legs of this order, 
and the flavour of their flesh resembles that of the wading- 
birds. They fly little, scarcely ever using their wings, 
except (like the ostriches) to assist them in running ; but 
their flight, when they do rise, is easy and capable of consi- 



342. Describe the Plover tribe, mid their variety. 

343. What of the Bustards and their differences f 



NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS. 199 

durable protraction. They feed equally on grain, herbage, 
worms, and insects. The great bustard is the largest of Eu- 
ropean birds, and is one of the finest kinds of game : it has 
been nearly extirpated in Great Britain. The Turnstone 
is at once recognised by a short stout bill, rather turned 
upwards ; the name is derived from the habit it possesses of 
turning up stones upon the sea-shore, to feed upon the ma- 
rine animals concealed beneath. The Oyster -catcher has a 
long, strait, wedge-shaped beak, which is strong enough 
[ to enable it to force open the bivalve shells of the molluscs 
upon which it feeds. 

Order VII. — Natatores, or swimming-birds. 

291. The Swimmers are, of all the orders of birds, the 
most easily recognisable by the structure and position of 
their oar-like feet. This peculiarity, which occasions that 
awkwardness of gait on the land which every one may 
observe in ducks and geese, is extremely favourable to those 

: birds whose " business is in the great waters." The 
body is boat-shaped, and the neck is very long in propor- 
tion, for the purpose of reaching prey beneath the water 
when the bird is floating on the surface. The thick downy 
covering is rendered impervious to water by the abundant 
application of the oily secretion. The bones of these birds 
are not hollow, like those of the rest of the class, but are filled 
with an oily marrow. In this, and in other points, their 
structure approximates to that of reptiles. Their circula- 
tion is less energetic than that of the other orders, and is 
capable of being considerably retarded in diving birds, by 
the obstruction of the respiration, without injury. 

292. As the water is the element in which these birds 
are formed to move, so does it also supply them with food. 
Some of them live on aquatic plants and submarine insects, 
but the greater proportion prey upon fish and those innu- 
merable swimming and creeping things which subsist in 
the sea and cover its shores. In general, several females 
associate with one male, and the young are hatched in a 
condition which renders the co-operation of both parents 



344. What of the structure of the Swimmers ? 



200 ZOOLOGY. 

for their support unnecessary, being able to take to the 
water and swim about in search of food, the instant they 
are liberated from the egg-coverings. 

293. This order may be divided into five families : — 
(i.) The Anatidje, or Duck tribe ; (n.) The Larid^e, or 
Gulls ; (in.) The Pelicanid^e, or Pelicans ; (iv.) The 
Colymbid^e, or Divers ; (v.) The AlcidjE, or Penguins. 
The three first are distinguished by the length of their 
wings, which enables them to fly well, while in the two 
latter these members are so short that they seem perfectly 
useless for any other purpose than that of fins. 

294. (i.) The Anatid^e are distinguished by a thick 
bill, which is horny only at its extremity ; the remainder 
of the mandibles being invested with a soft skin, which in 
other birds is found only at their hinder part. This skin in 
the ducks is extremely sensitive, and by it the animals 
take cognizance of the food contained in the mud, into 
which they plunge their bills. The edges of the bill are 
roughened, either by plates or small teeth arising from it ; 
and the tongue is large and fleshy. These birds live 
more in fresh water than in the sea ; and many of them 
(such as geese and swans) are exclusively vegetable feed- 
ers. The ducks, on the other hand, subsist in part upon 
animal diet ; and one tribe of them, the mergansers, feed 
almost exclusively upon fish. Under the general designa- 
tion of ducks, geese, and swans, all the birds of this family 
may be arranged ; and as these typical forms are so well 
known, it is unnecessary to dwell longer on it, although 
the habits of many species are extremely interesting. 
This family is very extensively diffused over the earth's 
surface, and supplies man with an important amount of 
food, and with the greater part of the down which con- 
tributes so greatly to his comfort and luxury. 

295. (ii.) The Larid^e, or Gull tribe, more resemble 
the higher orders of birds in their general structure, but 
are deficient in that which constitutes the perfection of 
the order — the power of swimming and diving. The 



345. Into what families are they divided ? 

346. What is peculiar in the Duck tribe? 



NATATORES THE GULLS. 201 

wings are very long, and their powers of flight considera- 
ble. The feet, although webbed, are so constructed as to 
enable them to walk with ease along the shore in search 
of food ; the legs are slender, and sometimes so long as to 
resemble those of the waders ; the hind toe is very small, 
and sometimes wanting. Many of the birds of this tribe 
have a tendency to associate in flocks. In consequence of 
their capability of protracted flight, they are met with at 
a greater distance from land than most others ; many 
species are almost constantly on the wing, and brave the 
most violent storms. They seem to devour almost every 
description of animal and vegetable food. 

296. The Gulls are the best known members of this 
family, from their abundance on our coasts. They in- 
habit the shore, nestling in the sand or in clefts of rocks. 
They are cowardly and voracious, feeding on fish, carrion, 
&c. The Skuas, which are chiefly abundant round the 
Scottish isles, are nearly allied to these, but are more pow- 
erful and courageous. The largest species, known as the 
great black-backed gull, builds its nest high in the moun- 
tains, and defends it with spirit and intrepidity, even driv- 
ing off eagles from the vicinity. It pursues the smaller 
gulls, and causes them to disgorge their -food, which it 
catches before it reaches the water. The Terns, or Sea- 
Swallows, also approach nearly to the gulls ; but their long 
and pointed wings, their short legs, and forked tail, induce 
a port and flight analogous to those of the swallows. They 
skim along the water with great rapidity, skilfully raising 
from its surface the small fishes and molluscs on which 
they feed, and to obtain which they often plunge. They 
also penetrate to the lakes and rivers of the interior. The 
Pe'rels have also a very swallow-like aspect; and they 
are found at a greater distance from the land than any 
others of this family. Their name (a diminutive of Peter) 
is applied from their peculiar motion on the surface, which 
gives them the appearance of walking on it ; in this the 
action of the wings upon the water assists them. Some 



347. Describe the Gulls, and the different species. 

348. What other species are cited ? 



202 



ZOOLOGY. 



ot the smallest of these are termed storm-petrels (vulgarly, 
Mother Carey's chickens), from their habit of seeking 
shelter on reefs and ships when a storm is approaching 
The Albatross is the most bulky of all aquatic birds. It 
is nearly allied to the petrel, which it resembles also in 




Albatross. 

its manner of treading the waves. In its general habits 
it may be described as a sort of marine vulture. It is ex- 
tremely voracious, and devours almost any thing that falls 
in its way. Though its wino-s are powerful, its flight is 
by no means lofty. No species of it exist in the northern 
part of the Atlantic ; but it is very abundant beyond the 
Tropic of Capricorn, and is one of the great enemies of 
the flying-fish. 

297. The Pelicanid^e, or Pelican tribe, are charac- 
terized by having the hind toe united to the rest by one 
continuous membrane : notwithstanding this conformation, 
which renders their feet perfect oars, they are almost the 
only Natatores which perch upon trees. All of them fly 
well, and have short legs. They are a large, voracious, 
and wandering tribe, living for the most part on the ocean, 



349. Describe the Albatross. 

350. What of the structure of the Pelicans ? 



NATATORES THE CORMORANTS, GANNETS, &C 203 

and seldom approaching land but at the season of incuba- 
tion. The Pelicans themselves are remarkable for the 
length of the bill, which is armed with an abrupt hook at 
the end ; the width of the gape is excessive ; and the skin 
hanging from the lower jaw, and forming the throat, is so 
extensible as to dilate into a pouch capable of holding a 
large quantity of fish. The Cormorants are allied to these, 
and are remarkable for being not only voracious but do- 
cile, so that they have been trained for fishing, as hawks 
for fowling. These are very widely distributed over the 
earth's surface, whilst the pelicans are restricted to the 
warmer latitudes. The Frigate-birds are nearly allied to 
the Cormorants, but differ from them in the excessive 
spread of wing (which renders them the most powerful 
flyers in this order — perhaps not being surpassed by any 
other bird), and in the form of the tail and bill. They 
feed upon fish, especially flying-fish, both darting at it 
themselves, when near the surface, and obtaining it from 
other birds, whom they compel to drop their prey. The 
Gannets are allied to the frigate-birds ; but the wings are 
less extended, and the powers of flight inferior. Some 
species are termed Boobies, from the stupidity they ex- 
hibit when attacked. A species about the size of a goose 
is very common in the British seas, and breeds especially 
on the Bass Rock, in the Firth of Forth. The Gannets 
take their prey by hovering in the air at some little dis- 
tance above the surface, and then dropping down upon 
any fish that they may see rising, within their reach. The 
air-cells are very largely developed, especially under the 
skin of the breast, which is almost completely separated 
by them from the muscles beneath ; and it is probable that 
they may serve as an elastic cushion, to break the force 
with which the body of the bird would otherwise impinge 
on the water. 

298. (iv.) The Colymbid^e, or Divers, may perhaps 
be regarded as intermediate in structure between the 
Duck tribe and the next family. They are all marine 
birds, with a lengthened, strong, straight bill. The wings 



351. What various species are described ? 



204 ZOOLOGY. 

are in general remarkably short ; and the feet placed so 
far behind the point of equilibrium of the body, that they 
will not allow the birds to walk upon land even so well as 
ducks. They are few in number, and are chiefly confined 
to the seas of northern regions. The true Divers, or 
Loons, are chiefly arctic birds, which visit the British 
shores only in winter. The legs are so completely buried 
within the body, that they are unable to walk upon land ; 
but they push themselves forwards upon the belly with 
facility and tolerable speed. They have a short tail, on 
which they rest when standing upright on their feet, to 
view what is going on around them by means of their long 
neck. They are great destroyers of fish, and pursue their 
prey under water with extreme swiftness. The Guille- 
mots bear more resemblance, perhaps, to the next family 
— using their wings to propel themselves under water, 
which the Divers do not. The Grebes dive in somewhat 
the same manner, but their habits are not so completely 
aquatic. They reside on the borders of lakes and ponds ; 
and, notwithstanding the shortness of their wings, they fly 
with considerable speed, when once they fairly rise, which 
they do with unwillingness. 

299. (v.) The Alcid^e, or Auk tribe, exhibit the most 
remarkable adaptation of the structure of the bird to an 
aquatic life, with which the entire order presents us. 
This is best seen in the Penguins, whose wings are very 
small, and covered with mere vestiges of feathers, which 
resemble scales ; so that they serve as admirable fins or 
paddles, but are totally useless for flight. The feet are 
placed very far back, so that when upon land the bird stands 
nearly erect. Having no power of flight, and not being 
able to run, the penguin may be overtaken with ease upon 
land ; but once in the water, it distances its pursuers, 
swimming with the ease and rapidity of a fish, and spring- 
ing several feet over any obstacle that may impede its 
course. Besides the characters which have been already 



352. Describe the Divers and their structure. 

353. What species are described ? 

354. Describe the variety of Penguins. 



REPTILES CLASSIFICATION. 205 

mentioned as indicating an approach towards the reptiles 
in this tribe, the penguin is especially remarkable for hav- 
ing that kind of ball-and-socket union of its vertebrae 
which is peculiar to that class. The penguins are exclu- 
sively inhabitants of the southern seas; but there are birds 
of the northern ocean which approach them in their peculiar 
characters. Such are the Puffins and Auks ; the former 
have short wings, which can sustain them for a short 
time ; of the latter, one species flies nearly as well as the 
Guillemots, whilst, in the other, the wings are adapted to 
aquatic progression almost as exclusively as in the pen- 
guin. 



CLASS III.— REPTILES. 

300. The class of Reptiles, which is the next to be con- 
sidered, presents us with more diversity of form amongst 
its separate orders than any other division of the verte- 
brated sub-kingdom. Scarcely any animals are more un- 
like in external aspect than tortoises and serpents ; yet we 
shall find that these extreme forms are connected with 
each other by a gradual series ; and the internal differ- 
ences are not so great as to prevent their association into 
one class, distinguished by characters which are common 
to all. These characters are — their low power of maintain- 
ing heat, or cold-bloodedness, arising from the imperfect 
aeration of their blood, of which only a portion is sent to 
the lungs at each impulse of the heart ; their oviparous 
reproduction ; the respiration of air exclusively during 
the whole period of life, no metamorphosis taking place in 
this class ; and the protection of the skin by hard scales 
or plates. By the first two they are distinguished from 
Mammalia and Birds, and by the others from Fishes and 
Amphibia. 

301. The deficiency in the oxygenation of the blood, 
combined with the slowness and feebleness of the circula- 
tion, is connected with general inactivity of the nutritive 

355. What are the characteristics Of reptiles ? 

18 



206 ZOOLOGY. 

functions, as well as with obtuseness of sensation and slug- 
gishness of locomotion. It is a curious result of the feeble 
exercise of these functions, that, as in Amphibia, they 
may be suspended for a considerable time without apparent 
injury to the animal ; and that parts separated from the 
body retain for a long period much of that low degree of 
vitality which they usually exhibit in connection with 
it. Although at present Reptiles appear to perform a 
comparatively insignificant part in the economy of nature, 
especially in temperate climates, where their numbers are 
few and their powers feeble, we learn from the records of 
geology that there was a period in the earth's history, 
long antecedent to the creation of Birds and Mammalia, 
when gigantic animals of this class not only constituted 
the chief tenants of the earth, but extended their dominion 
over the waters of the sea. 

302. The three well-known forms, Tortoises, Lizards, 
and Serpents, may be taken as the types of three orders 
into which this class may be subdivided, namely, the Che- 
lonia, Sauria, and Ophidia. But, in order to embrace 
some of the fossil species, which present us with other 
types of structure, it is desirable to create another order — 
the Enaliosauria — intermediate between the Turtles and 
Crocodiles ; and this last tribe, though possessing the gen- 
eral form of lizards, so far differs from them in the cover- 
ing of the body (which consists of large plates instead of 
scales) as well as in some points of internal organization, 
that a distinct order, Loricata, has been formed for it. 
These five orders may then stand thus : — I. Chelonia, 
including the Turtles, Tortoises, &c; II. Enaliosauria, 
to which the Plesiosaurus, Icthyosaurus, and other fossil 
remains belong ; III. Loricata, comprehending the Cro- 
codiles, Alligators, &c; IV. Sauria, including the re- 
mainder of the Lizard tribes ; V. Ophidia, the Serpents, 

Order I. — Chelonia. 

303. The order Chelonia diners the most of any of 
these from the general form of the group. The shell in 

35G. Which are types of the three orders ? 
.$.>?. What are i i i * * uaiuei <>t tin 1 five orders! 



CHELONIA — UREEN OK EDIBLE TURTLE. 207 

which the body is enclosed, and into which, in some spe- 
the head, legs, and tail, can be completely withdrawn, 
would seem a perfectly new organ, to which nothing cor- 
respondent exists among vertebrated animals. And the 
tin-like extremities of the aquatic species remind us more 
of fish than of other reptiles. The shell, however, is com- 
posed of the usual bones of the skeleton, modified only in 
their form. The upper piece, termed the carapace, is 
usually more or less arched, and is composed of a bony 
expansion of the rihs, which are consolidated into a firm 
structure, adhering to each other along their edges, and 
are covered with horny plates, secreted from the skin-like 
hair or nails. The lower plate, or plastron, is formed by 
a peculiar development of the sternum or breast-bone, 
which, instead of being prolonged forwards into a keel, 
to give attachment to large muscles, as in birds, is extend- 
ed latterly for the protection of the subjacent parts. 

3(J4. x\Iost of the Che onia are deficient in weapons of 
offence, b^ ing destitute of teeth, claws, or other sharp in- 
struments. The jaws are covered with a horny substance, 
resembling that of the bills of birds ; but their surfaces are 
usually ruunded, so as to be more adapted to bruise than 
to bite. The shell, however, serves as a most effectual 
means of passive resistance. In the land species it is 
usuahy high-arched, and firmly united, so as to bear a 
very great weight without injury; and the feebleness of 
the power of motion in these animals is thus compensated. 
But in the aquatic species it is generally more flattened, 
so as to oppose less resistance to the water. Some of these 
have the power of swimming with considerable rapidity, 
and are altogether more active in their habits than the rest 
of the order. In those, the shell affords much less com- 
plete protection to the body, and its parts are more loosely 
united, so that it possesses some degree of flexibility. 

;*05. Among the famili, s into which the Chelonia are 
subdivided, it will be convenient to notice first the Che- 
LOMDiE, or Turtles. These are distinguished by the in- 
completeness of their shelly covering, and the peculiar 

'3J6 What ot the structure of Tortoises ? 



208 



ZOOTOMY. 



modification of the feet for swimming. The ribs, by the 
union of which the carapace is formed, are separated from 
one another around its margin, and the pieces which com- 
pose the plastron do not form a continuous plate, but leave 
great intervals, which are occupied only by cartilage. 
All the feet are much elongated, particularly the anterior 
pair, and are flattened so as to serve for oars or paddles. 
The toes are seldom at all separated, the whole foot being 
enveloped in the same skin, closely set with hard plates. 
They live almost entirely at sea, feeding chiefly upon ma- 
rine plants, and they only come to the shore to deposit 
their eggs. The oesophagus (gullet) of these animals is 
lined with long cartilaginous processes, all directed towards 
the stomach ; these seem to have for their object the preven- 
tion of the return of the food, which is swallowed together 
with a large quantity of water ; and, when the stomach 
afterwards ejects the superflous fluid, these spikes prevent 
the food from being regurgitated with it. 

306. The chelone midas, green or edible turtle, is to 
man the most important species of the whole group, not 
only on account of the delicacy of its flesh in epicurean 
estimation, but as furnishing a wholesome and abundant 
article of food to voyagers in tropical climates. It is dis- 
tinguished by the greenish colour of its scales, which are 
about thirty in number, but they do not lap over one an- 
other, and they are not of any use in the arts. The usual 
length of this species is four or five feet, and its weight 
from 400 to 800 lbs. It has been known to increase, 
however, to a length of eight feet and a weight of 1500 
lbs. ; but the flesh of the large turtles is not so much es- 
teemed as that of the small ones. The turtles feed in 
great troops upon the sea-weeds in shallow waters, where 
they may be seen grazing like a herd of cattle. They 
are occasionally obliged to come to the surface to breathe, 
and sometimes remain there, basking in the sunshine. 

307. Although generally living in the open sea, they 
are obliged to approach the land for the purpose of laying 



359. Describe the Turtle family. 

360. What is said of thegree.n turtle ? 



CIIELONIA HAWK's-BILLKD TURTLE. 209 

their eggs. The number deposited by each individual is 
about one hundred, and the process is repeated three times 
a year. The eggs are almost unprotected by a shell, and, 
that they may be covered without injury by the sand (in 
which they are hatched by the heat of the sun), it is re- 
quisite that this should be soft and movable. To obtain 
a good locality for this purpose, the turtles will travel 

i many hundred leagues. They prefer an insular spot, and 
on that account Ascension Island, from its central situation 

i is much frequented by them. They lay their eggs by 
night, and in large companies, and at this time they are 
secured by those who are employed in catching them. 
The young turtle, when it emerges from the shell, is not 

1 more than two inches in length ; the disproportion between 
its early and adult state is thus very remarkable. It does 
not possess sufficient specific gravity to sink in water, 

, and, as its shell is soft, it falls an easy prey to voracious 
animals of different kinds. After a time, those which re- 
main follow their parents to their old haunts. Turtles are 
long-lived animals, individuals having been known to exist 

i for a hundred years. They are usually found within a 

range of 25 or 30 degrees north and south of the equator. 

308. The cheiona imbricata, or hawk's-billed turtle, is 

, the one that furnishes the best tortoise-shell for the pur- 
poses of the manufacturer. This has its horny muzzle 
somewhat prolonged into a sharp point, and the lower jaw 

, is received into a groove of the upper, so that the food can 
be cut as well as bruised by it. The thirteen plates which 
cover the whole upper part of the shell are much thicker 
and stronger, as well as more clouded in colour, than those of 
any other species ; and they lie over one another like the 

i tiles ^>f a house, so that at least one-third of each overlaps 
the one behind it. They are separated in the first instance 
by the aid of heat, and afterwards softened by the same 
agency, for being worked into various forms. Even the 

' tiling and powder which remain from the other processes. 

1 are made useful, by being pressed with any small frag- 

' ments in metallic moulds at a heat of boiling water ; this 

361. What of their mode of reproduction? 

18* 






210 ZOOLOGY. 

process unites them firmly, and they can then be formed 
into plates of any required thickness. About ten or twelve 
pounds of tortoise-shell are usually yielded by each indi- 
vidual. This species does not grow to above one-third of 
the size of the green turtle. 

309. The chelone caretta, or loggerhead turtle, is a spe- 
cies, nearly confined to the Mediterranean. Its flesh is 
not held in much estimation, but it is wholesome. A very 
curious genus, belonging to the same family, is the sphar- 
gls, or leathery turtle ; in this the carapace is not covered 
by scaly plates, but by a thick leather-like skin. The 
head is more acute than in the other marine turtles ; the 
jaws are of immense strength, and the edges very sharp; 
the upper one has three remarkable notches, having points 
between them which serve as teeth. The eye opens al- 
most vertically, which gives a peculiar and strange aspect 
to the animal. It acquires a large size, sometimes weigh- 
ing 800 lbs. It feeds upon various marine animals as 
well as plants. This species is found in the Mediterra- 
nean, the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. A few 
specimens of it have found their way to our own shores. 

310. The Emyd,e, Fresh-wafer Turtles, or Mud Tor- 
toises, are intermediate in form between the family just 
described and the land Tortoises. The character by 
which they may be most constantly separated from the 
marine Turtles, is the distinctness of their toes, which are 
terminated by claws ; but a web still exists between the 
toes, which assists them in swimming, and also prevents 
the feet from sinking into mud. Rivers, ponds, and run- 
ning streams, are the haunts of these animals, of which 
one species is common in the south and east of Europe, 
and is fattened for food in Germany and Russia, whejre it 
is considered a delicacy. The food of the Emydae consists 
of mollusca, aquatic insects, small fish, carrion, and vege- 
tables. The species at present existing seldom attain any 
great size, their shells varying from one and a half inch to 
a foot in length ; many of the fossil species are much 



362. What of the hawk's-bill turtle? 

363. Describe the loggerhead turtle. 



TESTUDINID^E LAND TORTOISES. 211 

larger. Their habits are usually active ; when disturbed, 
they bury themselves in the mud, and escape from their 
enemies by the discoloration they thus occasion. 

311. In several of the Emydae the carapace and the 
plastron are but loosely united ; and the pieces of the lat- 
ter are movable upon one another. This is the case in the 
Terrapins, or Box-Tortoises, which are able to draw the 
head and limbs completely into the shell, and to close the 
latter by folding the anterior, and in some instances the 
posterior, division of the plastron against the carapace. In 
this order has been included a very remarkable animal, 
which is known in America by the name of the snapping- 
turtle or alligator-tortoise. It combines the characters of 
the Chelonia and Sauria, having the shell of the former 
and the lengthened body and active habits of the latter. 
The shell is oval and depressed, like that of the Emydae 
in general ; but the neck and legs are much too long to be 
withdrawn within it. The animal is principally distinguish- 
ed, however, by the size of the tail, which is very large, and 
of about the same length with the shell. This species is 
much bolder than the others of the group. It goes to a 
considerable distance from the water in search of food ; 
and bites and hisses with great vehemence. Its claws are 
sharp ; and so forcible and violent is its bite, that one of 
them has been known to snap asunder a stick half an inch 
in diameter without difficulty. It feeds upon frogs and 
other small aquatic reptiles, fish, and even birds and small 
Mammalia ; and it has been seen to combat with alligators, 
and even to come off victorious. The name by which 
it is at present known is chelydra serpentina. 

312. The family of Testudinim:, or Land-Tortoises, 
is distinguished by the highly arched carapace, and, still 
more, by the short clubby feet, of the animals composing 
it. Their armour is harder and thicker in proportion to 
their size, and also more firmly united together, than that 
of the aquatic species. The neck and legs are short, and 
are capable of being drawn entirely within the shell ; so 



364. What other species are cited ? 

365. What variety in this species is named ? 



212 ZOOLOGY. 

that the whole structure of the animal, is adapted for pas 
sive resistance. The feet, shaped very much like those 
of the elephant, are adapted for walking on firm ground 
only, as the surface they present is very small. They are 
subdivided into toes, of which there are five on the fore 
feet and four on the hind ; and these are furnished with 
short conical claws, well adapted for digging. These ani- 
mals are of the most inoffensive character possible. They 
feed only upon roots and vegetables, and upon the worms 
and slugs that infest these ; during the summer they live 
in woods or among herbage ; and they pass the winter, in 
cold climates, beneath the earth, where they burrow and 
sleep. They are generally dispersed in all the warm and 
temperate latitudes; but they do not naturally extend to 
Great Britain, although individuals that have been intro- 
duced have lived to a great age in this country. 

313. The commonest species is the Ttstudo Grxca^ 
which is an inhabitant of most of the continent of Europe, 
as well as of many parts of Asia and Africa ; it especially 
abounds near the snores of the Mediterranean. It seldom 
attains above a foot in length, or weighs more than three 
pounds. The flesh forms an article of food in Greece. 
In the East Indies are found species which attain to a 
much greater size. An individual in the possession of the 
Zoological Society of London measures 4 feet 4£ inches I 
along the curve of the back, the breadth of the shell being 
2 feet 1 inch, and the weight of the whole animal 285 lbs. \ 
Some of the land-tortoises, included in the genera Pixi/s [ 
and Cinixys, have the pieces of the sternum movable, as 
in the Terrapins, so as completely to guard the body from j 
external injury. 

314. Besides these three families, may be mentioned a 
genus which cannot be included in them, the Trionyx, or 
soft tortoise. This has no scales or plates ; but the bony 
envelope is covered by a soft skin. A considerable part 
both of the carapace and plastron is destitute of bone, being 
filled up in the living state by cartilage. The horny muz- 



366. What of ihe structure, of land -tortoises ? 

367. What other species are described ? 






ENALIOSAURIA FOSSIL GENERA. 213 

zle is closed externally with fleshy lips ; and the nose, 
unlike thrit of the other Chelonia, is prolonged into a small 
proboscis, having the nostrils at the tip. The feet some- 
what resemble those of the Emydae, being flattened, but 
not lengthened ; the toes are distinct, but only three of 
them are furnished with claws, whence the name of the 
i^enus. They live entirely in fresh water ; and they are 
provided with an organ of swimming additional to the feet, 
for the loose skin of their body forms a thin narrow flap 
round the edges of the shell, and performs the office of a 
fin. The trionyx was first observed during the French 
expedition in Egypt. A species of it is very abundant 
there, and is of great service in devouring the young cro- 
codiles soon after they are hatched : it is believed to do 
more in the destruction of this race than even the ichneu- 
mon. A species inhabiting the Ganges is observed to 
feed upon the dead bodies which are constantly floating in 
the stream. And another, which inhabits the rivers of 
tropical America, is of peculiarly ferocious habits, lurking 
in the vegetation on their banks, and darting with energy 
upon birds and smaller reptiles which come within its 
reach. It preys upon young alligators ; and is in its turn 
devoured by the full grown ones. 

Order II. — -Enaliosauria. 

315. The order Enaliosauria has been founded upon 
two extraordinary fossil genera, the Icthyosaurus and the 
Plesiosaurus. Of these little else than the bones has 
been preserved to us ; and it is therefore impossible to 
speak with certainty in regard to many parts of their or- 
ganization. The character by which they are especially 
connected with the Chelonia is the flattening of the ex- 
tremities into fin-like paddles, resembling those of turtles. 
They must have been, therefore, marine animals, endowed 
with scarcely any power of movement on land ; but, 
although in many points analogous to fish, it is nearly 
certain that they breathed air like reptiles in general, and 
.hat they must have occasionally come to the surface to 

36*. What of the last genus ? 

369. Name the two fossil genera of this order. 



214 ZOOLOGY. 

respire. Moreover, from the remains found in proximity 
with them, it may be surmised with probability that they 
fed upon marine animals alone, especially upon the various 
forms of Cephalopoda, which were particularly abundant 
at the epoch of their existence. 

316. The general form of the Icthyosaurus (or fish- 
lizard) appears to have been not unlike that of a crocodile, 
with the substitution of fins for feet. The head is length- 
ened into a narrow pointed muzzle, and the jaws armed 
with sharp and formidable teeth ; it had eyes of enormous 
size, which must have given it an extraordinary aspect, 
and probably enabled it to see by night. The skeleton of 
the commonest species (/. tenuirostris) usually measures 
three-and-a-half feet in length ; but portions of another 
kind have been found, which must have belonged to ani- 
mals of above twenty feet. It is probable that the skin 
was destitute of scales, like that of the Amphibia ; and, 
from recent inquiries, it appears that it possessed a sort 
of cartilaginous fin upon its back, like that of many Ceta- 
cea. This animal may thus be considered as presenting 
a very remarkable combination of the characters of other 
classes. Its remains, which are found in the lias and 
oolitic formations, are more abundant in England than in 
any other country in Europe. 

317. The Plesiosaurus was distinguished by the ex- 
traordinary length of its neck, which, in the commonest 
species [P. dolicfioaeirus), occupies nearly half the entire 
length. The head is very small in proportion, and the 
tail is short, stout, and pointed. The cervical vertebrae 
exceed in number those of any other animal known ; and, 
in their conformation, have a good deal of resemblance to 
those of the body of a snake. It is tke conjecture of 
Mr. Conybeare, by whom the first scientific investigation 
of the characters of this strange creature was made, that, 
as it breathed air and had frequent need of respiration, it 
generally swam upon or near the surface of the water, 
arching back its long neck, like the swan, and plunging 



370. Describe the first of these. 

371. How is this second genus described ? 



LORICATA — THE CHOCODILE, 215 

n downwards at the fishes that passed within its reach. 
The greater length of its extremities would enable it to 
.•nove on land with somewhat less difficulty than the Icthy- 
osaurus; and it might have very probably lurked in shal- 
low water along the coast, where it could find shelter from 
its enemies, and a place of ambush from which to dart out 
its long neck upon its own prey. Its length seems gene- 
rally to have been about ten feet. 

Order III. — Loricata. 

318. The order Loricata, including the Crocodiles, 
Alligators, and Gavials, may be regarded as in many 
respects intermediate between the fresh-water Tortoises 
and the true Lizards. The body is enclosed in a sort of 
plate-armour, of which the separate portions are closely 
fitted together, and are capable of great resistance. An- 
other character by which they are distinguished is the 
flattening of the foot, which is furnished with a kind of 
web between the toes, like that of the Emydae ; in the true 
lizards no such provision for aquatic habits is found. This 
order includes the most bulky reptiles at present known 
to exist. Some of them attain the length of thirty feet, 
and a circumference of seven or eight ; so that, with the 
exception of the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippo- 
potamus, there is no terrestrial animal exceeding these in 
dimensions. 

ol9. Although capable of moving on land, however, the 
greater number of them prefer the water, and show their 
chief activity in it. Besides the expansion of the foot, 
they are adapted for swimming by the lateral compres- 
sion of the tail, which thus acts as a large and powerful 
fin. The crocodiles and their allies are all inhabitants 
of the rivers and fresh waters of warm climates ; and they 
are all purely carnivorous. They destroy their prey by 
holding it beneath the surface of the water until it is 
drowned; the position of their nostrils, and the arrange- 
ment of the air-passages, b?ing such that they are them- 
selves enabled to breathe during the process. They can- 



372. Wha; oi thi*= third order ' 



"IS ZOOLOGY. 

not swallow under water, however, and their habit is to 
hide their prey in holes on the bank, until it has become 
putrid, and then to devour it at their leisure. 

320. The conformation of the neck is such, that the head 
cannot be moved very far from side to side, though its play 
in the vertical direction is not limited. The animal finds 
it difficult, therefore, to turn itself round upon land; and 
thus a sure means of escape presents itself, in those rare 
cases in which it leaves the water in pursuit of human 
prey. The tail, however, is very flexible from side to 
side, and is of great importance in propulsion. It also 
serves as an important weapon, for it is armed, like the 
back, with very strong upright plates, which form sharp 
ridges or crests in their centre ; with this weapon the 
crocodiles can inflict terrific wounds upon their enemies. 
This group is entirely confined to the countries bordering 
on the equator. The animals which compose it may be 
considered in three subdivisions — the Crocodiles, chiefly 
inhabiting the Nile and other African rivers ; the Gaviah, 
found in the Ganges and other Asiatic rivers ; and the 
Caymans or Alligators, confined to the New World. 

321. The characteristic differences of these three divi- 
sions are best marked in the form of the head. The Ga- 
vials have the muzzle exceedingly prolonged and narrow, 
somewhat resembling in form the beak of the spoonbili. 
In the true Crocodiles it gradually widens from the point 
towards the eyes; and in the Caymans the snout is much 
more rounded, and the head is broader in proportion to its 
length. These last appear less adapted to aquatic habits 
than the Crocodiles and Gavials, for the feet are not 
webbed to nearly the same extent as in the latter, and the 
ridge which increases the surface of their hind legs is 
wanting in the Alligators. With these exceptions, how- 
ever, the general conformation of all, as well as their mode 
of life, is very similar. 

322. The Crocodiles of the Nile are seldom found at 
present near the mouth of the river, being nearly confined 



373. How is this ^roup subdivided? 

374. How are ihey distinguished ( 



LORICATA THE CROCODILE. 217 

to Upper Egypt, where the constant warmth prevents 
them from hybernating as they do in higher latitudes. 
They seem formerly, however, to have been much more 
abundant ; but a constant war of extermination is now 
waged against them by man, as well as by their naturaV 
enemies. The ancient Egyptians were so well aware of 
the benefits they derived from them in the removal of the 
putrefying animal substances that would have corrupted 
their waters, and in guarding them from the incursions of 
the Libyan robbers, that they made them objects of adora- 
tion, placing them in their temples whilst alive and em- 
balming them when dead. They generally resort to the 
sedgy banks of rivers, where they lie concealed ; and their 
brown knotty aspect, resembling that of the fallen trunk of 
a tree, assists them in eluding observation. At other 
times, they swim just beneath the surface to the place 
where terrestrial animals may have come to slake their 
thirst. Sometimes they seize their prey at once with 
their jaws, but often first strike it a violent blow with their 
tail. Men, and particularly Negroes, are said to be their 
favourite prey, and are not unfrequently carried ofFby them. 
They are greedy, too, after the flesh of dogs, and the 
Negroes that hunt the crocodile in the African rivers are 
accustomed to beat the dogs, that their bark may attract 
the crocodiles.* 

323. The Gavial, or crocodile of the Ganges, seems to 
be more completely aquatic than the true crocodiles, sel- 
dom quitting the water, and reposing chiefly on the mud in 
the shallows. Its food consists almost entirely of fishes, 
aquatic reptiles, and other living productions of the waters ; 
it seldom meddles with warm-blooded creatures, and never 
with living man, but it probably assists in destroying the 



* According to Bosc, the wild dogs of Florida, that live near the rivers 
in which alligators abound, have recourse to a curious stratagem. When 
they wish to drink, they go to the water and bark ; this attracts the alliga- 
tors to the spot; the dog immediately runs as fast as he can to some distant 
part of the river, where he has time to drink before the alligators can come 
up with him. 



375. What of the crocodiles ? 

376. What of the habits of the negroes and dogs ? 

19 



2 IS ZOOLOGY. 

aVad bodies which are so constantly floating down the stream. 
It sometimes attains a considerable size ; from a fragment 
preserved in Paris, the entire animal would seem to have 
been above thirty feet in length. The Ganges is tenanted 
by the common crocodile as well as by the gavial. 




Alligator. 

324. In regard to the Caymans of the New World, it 
is to be remarked, that this term is applied there to all 
animals of the crocodile form, and thus to the true croco- 
dile, several species of which exist in that quarter of the 
globe, as well as to the alligator — hence some confusion has 
arisen. The alligator passes much of its time on land, 
but prefers marshy places. It lies hid there, covered with 
underwood, and springs upon any animals that may come 
within its reach. It drags them to the water, however, for the 
purpose of drowning them. Sometimes it will even attack 
men. Its voice is very loud, resembling that of a bull ; 
and it is altogether, when of large size, a more formidable 
enemy upon land than a crocodile, which seems out 
of its element and comparatively powerless when it quits 
the water. In the river near Surinam, alligators have 
been seen that attained the length of twenty-four feet. In 
many parts of America their flesh is eaten by the natives, 
but it is described as having a musky and rather foetid 
odour. 



377. Describe the gavial. 

378. What is remarkable in the alligator? 



SAURIA, Oil LIZARDS. 219 

Order IV. — Sauria. 

325. The order Sauria comprehends all the animals 
commonly known as Lizards. They are intermediate. be- 
tween the Loricata and Serpents, for they have a length- 
ened oody, terminating- in a tail, like the former ; but this, 
instead of being enclosed in large shields or plates, is co- 
vered with small scales, as in the latter. Moreover, they 
have usually four legs ; but in some species one pair dis- 
appears, and in others they are all concealed beneath the 
skin, so that the body presents a snake-like aspect. In 
this croup are found some of the most active, and certainly 
the most beautiful, of the Reptile class. Many of them 
are tinctured with the most brilliant colours ; and as they 
are called into the greatest activity in the bright sunshine, 
nothing can surpass the splendour of their ever-changing 
hues. These colours bear an interesting relation to the 
habits of the animal, having a general resemblance to that 
of the places they frequent ; thus, tree-lizards are almost 
always of bright colours, in which green predominates ; 
ground-lizards, brown, more or less speckled ; and those 
which live in stony places are of a grayish hue. 

320. The greater part of the Sauria are carnivorous, 
feeding upon other animals of inferior size and strength 
to themselves, and almost always preferring living prey. 
Many of them pursue nothing but insects ; others lie in 
wait for small birds. The Iguanas, however, feed almost 
wholly upon vegetables. Many of them are possessed of 
very great agility upon land ; some of them can ascend 
perpendicular w r alls, and even run along the ceiling with 
their backs downward ; none of them are inhabitants of 
the water, though a few occasionally resort to it. The 
activity of the smaller insectivorous lizards, when in pur- 
suit of their food, is exceedingly curious and interesting. 
They watch with all the caution of a cat, and dart upon 
their prey with the quickness of lightning. Their move- 
ments are effected chiefly by means of their feet, and in 



379. Describe the characteristics of lizards. 

380. What variety is cited ? 



220 ZOOLOGY. 

the higher tribes exclusively so ; but in those species in 
which the legs are short and the feet very small in pro- 
portion to the length of the body, progression is greatly 
assisted by the lateral motion of the trunk, which works 
its way along somewhat in the manner of that of the ser- 
pents. 

327. The order Sauria may be subdivided into five fami- 
lies — (i.) The Lacertinid^e, characterized by the small 
head and thin neck, but particularly by the very long slen- 
der forked tongues of the animals composing it. This 
group includes the common lizards of this country, and 
most of the saurians whose habits are peculiarly active, 
(n.) The Igtjanid,e, having the same general form, but 
short thick tongues. This group includes some of the 
largest of the Sauria, both recent and fossil, (in.) The 
GeckotidjE, which are all nocturnal animals. These 
have not the attenuated form of the previous families, but 
are flattened, especially on the head. Their legs are short, 
and their movements comparatively tardy. Their colour 
is usually very sombre ; and they are reputed, but with- 
out foundation, to be venomous, (iv.) The Chameleonic, 
whose tongue is of immense length, but obtuse at its point. 
The feet and tail are both peculiarly adapted for climbing; 
the former having two of the toes opposable to the rest, 
and the latter being round and prehensile. Their 
movements are very slow, except when the tongue is 
darted out to secure its insect prey, (v.) The ScincoidjE, 
or Serpent-lizards, which are recognised by the shortness 
of the feet, the non-extensibility of the tongue, and the 
equality of the tile-like scales which cover the whole body 
and tail. 

328. (i.) The Lacertinid.e are the most agile, most 
innocent, and most beautiful of the Saurians. Though 
they share, in common with the others, the dislike in 
which the animals of the class of reptiles are held by most 
persons, they never injure man, and are in some cases of 
considerable service to him. The larger ones live on the 
ground, usually preferring the shelter of underwood or of 

381. Into how many families is this order divided ? 



SAtTRIA THE TRUE LIZARDS. 221 

stomas, and some frequenting marshy situations; whilst 
the smaller kinds resort to trees in search of their insect 
food, and in the liveliness of their colours and the rapidity 
of their motions, bear no inconsiderable resemblance to 
birds. The family comprehends two subordinate groups 
— the Monitors, characterized by the absence of teeth in 
the palate, and the Lacerfx, strictly so called, which have 
the back of the palate armed with two ranges of teeth. 

3 4 29. The Monitors derive their name from the idea, 
entertained in the countries where they chiefly abound, 
that their presence indicates the proximity of the crocodile 
and other noxious reptiles. In Egypt, they restrain the 
multiplication of the crocodile, destroying its eggs and de- 
vouring the young. The ancient Egyptians appear to 
have held the monitor of the Nile in great reverence, for 
it is delineated on many of their monuments. An allied 
species is employed by the jugglers of Cairo in their tricks ; 
but they first deprive it of its teeth. Many species, fre- 
quenting the rivers of various tropical countries, are in a 
great degree aquatic in their habits. The Sauve garde 
of the South American continent is one of these. It runs 
with great swiftness along the ground, and digs its hiding- 
place in the earth, but takes to the water when hard pur- 
sued. This species attains the length of six feet ; its 
flesh is considered a great delicacy, and it is hunted with 
avidity. The tail is flattened vertically, by which its 
aquatic habits are indicated ; but there are other species, 
included in the genus Jlmeiva, in which the tail is 
round, and which more resemble the common terrestrial 
lizards. These are confined to the New World. 

330. The true Lizards inhabit all warm countries, 
and many of those which are considered temperate. In 
the latter, they pass the winter in a state of torpidity. 
When excited by the heat of the sun, they exhibit great 
energy and activity ; but they can subsist a long time 
without food. The tail is round, and without any crest : 
this indicates the strictly terrestrial habits of the tribe. It 



382. Describe the first of these. 

383. What of the Monitors, and the several species ? 

19* 






'21% zxj 

is, moreover, exceedingly brittle, and a portion of it can be 
separated by a very slight touch ; but it is reproduced 
again in a short time. Although extremely inoffensive, 
lizards will often defend themselves with great energy 
when attacked, and will bite more keenly than would be 
supposed. The greater number of them feed upon in- 
sects ; but some of them prey upon small animals, such 
as mice or frogs. Two small species inhabit England, — 
the later t a agilis, or sand lizard, a beautiful little animal, 
which is sometimes of a brown and sometimes of a green- 
ish hue ; it is found on sandy heaths, and occasionally 
seen basking on the sunny sides of green banks. A more 
common one, however, is the lacerta vivipara, which in- 
habits most districts of England, and even extends into 
Scotland ; it is also one of the few reptiles found in Ire- 
land. It frequents heaths and banks, and may be seen 
on the watch for its insect prey, during the warm parts 
of the day, from the early spring until summer has far 
advanced. Its name is derived from a peculiarity which 
it shares with the viper — its eggs are retained and 
hatched within the body, so that the young are produced 
alive. There is a beautiful green lizard, which is found 
in Guernsey, and abounds on the continent of Europe, but 
is not an inhabitant of Great Britain. Even this is re- 
puted poisonous by the vulgar, but the prejudice is en- 
tirely without foundation. 

331. Some gigantic fossil bones have been discovered, 
which seem to be the remains of enormous saurians, allied 
in structure to the Lacertidae of the present time. One 
of these has been termed the moxosaurus, and it appears 
to have been intermediate between the monitor and the 
iguana. From the proportional length of its head, which 
is nearly the sole part preserved, this lizard must have 
been at least seventy feet from head to tail. The geo- 
saurm is another large fossil saurian, which seems to 
have been intermediate between the crocodile and the 
monitor. 



384. Describe the habits of true Lizards. 

385. What fossil variety is named? 









SAURIA THE IGIANIDJE. 223 

832. (u.) The family of Iguanid^e approaches pretty 
closely to the true lizards in many of its general charac- 
ters ; but it contains several most extraordinary forms, 
widely differing from each other. The true iguanas are 
confined to America ; but some genera of this order are 
found over the greater part of the tropical zone. Like 
.he previous family, the Iguanidae may be divided into 
two sections, according to the absence or possession of 
palatal teeth. 

8&i. In the first of these, we find many genera which 
bear a great similarity with the true lizards, and which 
offer nothing worthy of especial notice. Next to these, 
however, is placed a tribe which is interesting alike from 
its peculiarity of conformation and from its being the only 
living representative of the fabulous dragons of the olden 
time. This is the genus Draco, the animals included in 
which are distinguished at the first glance from all other 
saurians, by the possession of a pair of wing-like appen- 
dages to the sides of the body. These are formed by 
extensions of the skin, supported by the false ribs, which 
are greatly prolonged. They can be folded up or extended 
at the will of the animal, but they cannot be made to strike 
the air and to elevate the animal like a bird or bat. They 
serve rather as a kind of parachute, on which this little 
dragon, not many inches long, flutters from branch to 
branch in search of its insect prey ; and also as a support 
to it when shooting, like the flying-squirrel, from tree to 
tree. These animals are found in the woods of tropical 
Africa and Asia, especially in the Indian archipelago. 

884. The existence of monstrous and horrible animals 
of this kind seems to have been believed in all ages, and 
in every part of the world. As Cuvier observes, the 
dragon exists everywhere except in nature. The Chinese 
make it their national emblem, like the lion in England. 
In ancient writings, particularly those of eastern countries, 
we find frequent accounts of hideous dragons, ravaging 
whole provinces, or spreading terror and desolation through 
a kingdom. Many frauds have been practised to give an 

V/htti peculiar animal is called Draco? 






224 



ZOOLOGY. 



appearance ©f truth to these fictions. It was formerly not 
uncommon to manufacture a monster from a ray or other 
fish, adding one or more heads as might be required. 
Linnseus tells us that he narrowly escaped being mur- 
dered for having exposed such a deception. In spite of 
the authority of historians, the traditions of the church, 
and the matter-of-fact representations of the older natural- 
ists, we are obliged to relinquish the favourite idea of the 
existence of the dragon, or at least to reduce it to the form 
of the mild, elegant, and insignificant animal above de- 
scribed. 

335. This is perhaps the proper place to notice the 
very extraordinary fossil, to which the name pterodactylus 
has been given. In its general character it was certainly 
a lizard ; but it seems to have been adapted to raise itself 
and fly in the air, like a bat or bird. The membrane of 
the wing was not extended, however, over the whole 
bony apparatus of the limb, but only one finger, which 
was enormously developed to support it. It is ranked by 
Cuvier among the most extraordinary of all the extinct 
animals that had come under his consideration; and the 
one which, if we saw them all restored to life, would appear 
most strange, and most unlike to any thing that exists 
in the present world. In the form of its head and the 
length of its neck, it resembled birds ; but it had the 
bones and teeth of a lizard ; its wings approached those 
of bats in form and proportion ; and its body and tail re- 
sembled those of ordinary Mammalia. 

336. In general external form, the pterodactylus pro- 
bably most resembled a vampire bat ; but in most of the 
species, the snout was elongated like that of a crocodile, 
and armed with conical teeth. Their eyes were of enor- 
mous size, apparently enabling them to fly by night. 
From their wings projected fingers, terminated by long 
hooks, like the curved claw on the thumb of the bat. 
These must have formed powerful members, with which 



387. What of the fabulous accounts of dragons? 

388. What extraordinary fossil is cited here ? 

389. Describe its struct ure. 



SAURIA THE TRUE IGUANA. 225 

the animals were enabled to climb, or creep, or suspend 
themselves from trees. With regard to their food, it has 
been conjectured that they preyed upon insects; and the 
number of fossil remains of insects in the strata in which 
they are found, proves that such a source of aliment was 
within their reach. The head and teeth of two species, 
however, are so much larger than would be required for 
the capture of insects, that they may have possibly fed on 
fishes (as there were at that epoch few or no small land 
animals), darting upon them from the air after the manner 
of many sea-birds. 

337. From this account of the pterodactyl us, it is evi- 
dent that it is a most remarkable connecting link between 
the classes of birds and reptiles. That it is to be associated 
wilh the latter can scarcely be questioned ; but if, as has 
been recently stated, the covering of the skin was more 
analogous to hairs or feathers than to scales, its affinity to 
birds must have been extremely strong. 

338. In the second section of Iguantd^:, distinguished 
by the existence of palatal teeth, we first meet with the 
true Iguanas. These are confined to the New World, 
and frequently attain considerable size. They have a kind 
of spine or crest along the back, and a hanging pouch 
und/r the throat, which seems analogous to the dew-lap 
of oxen ; this pouch can be inflated, but under what cir- 
cumstance is not exactly known. They have also in some 
degree that power of changing the hue of the skin, which 
is so remarkable in the chameleon. They are very agile, 
the legs being long in proportion to the body, and their 
food is almost exclusively vegetable. Some of them attain 
the length of five or six feet, of which the tail constitutes 
a large proportion. Their flesh is much esteemed as 
food ; and, in the countries where they abound, they are 
sought for with this object. They are extremely tenacious 
of life. When attacked, they assume a formidable, though 
not a dangerous aspect. They open their mouths, vibrate 
their tongues with rapid motion, inflate their throats, and 
erect their crests, while their eyes glance with great bril- 

390 Pp«crihe the rnip [guana. 



226 ZOOLOGY, 

liancy. All this, however, is a demonstration for defence 
and not for attack. They are never known to combat 
with any animals but those of very small size. 

839. Some gigantic fossil remains, allied in conforma- 
tion to the Iguana, indicate the former existence of ani- 
mals of similar character which attained enormous bulk. 
The chief of these was the iguanodon, of whose bones, 
fragments have been found in Tilgate Forest. The teeth 
are so precisely similar to those of the iguana in the prin- 
ciples of their construction, as to leave no doubt of the near 
connection of this gigantic saurian, which must have pro- 
bably attained a length of at least seventy feet, with the 
herbivorous lizards of our own time. The examination 
of these teeth discloses some remarkable mechanical con- 
trivances, adapting them to the function of cropping tough 
vegetable food, such as that afforded by the plants found 
imbedded with it. 

340. Under the name of Basilisk is at present desig- 
nated a genus of reptiles allied to the Iguanas, which has 
as much resemblance to the basilisk of old marvel-relators 
as the draco to the fabulous dragon. The most ancient 
authors have mentioned it as a serpent which has the 
power of striking its victim dead by a single glance ; and 
the approved mode of catching it was to carry a mirror, 
by which the animal's death-striking glances would be 
reflected upon itself. Pliny assures us that it has a voice 
so terrible that it strikes terror into all other animals, so 
that it chases them from the spot which it inhabits, retain- 
ing the sole and undisputed dominion of it. The name, 
indeed, imports its kingly authority. According to the 
representations of the older naturalists, it had eight feet, 
two large scales for wings, and its head "the likeness of a 
kingly crown had on." It is well to know something of 
such fables, however absurd they may seem, since in 
ignorance of them we lose the force of many fine pass- 
ages in poetry and fiction. Thus, in the play of Richard 
II L, Shakspeare makes the Lady Anne retort to Richard, 
who is praising the beauty of her eyes, " Would they were 

391. What fossil species is named ? 



SAURIA THK BASILISKS. 227 

basilisk's, to strike thee dead !" The cockatrice seems to 
have been a kind of basilisk, and is still reputed among 
the vulgar as a real being, hatched by a serpent from the 
egg of a cock. 

341. The animals now known as basilisks are harmless 
and rather elegant lizards, of somewhat aquatic habits, 
and confined to a few localities in tropical climates. They 
resemble the iguanas in their general organization, but 
they do not possess the pouch under the throat, and the 
crest which runs along the back is much higher, and 
extends as far as the middle of the tail. This crest serves 
as a vertical fin of considerable power, by the action of 
which the animal can swim readily through the water, 
and it can be depressed, so as not to impede its motions 
on land. The want of a membrane or web between the 
toes, which would have been inconvenient to animals in- 
tended to spend a great part of their life in trees, is thus 
compensated. They have also a curious bag or pouch at 
the upper and back part of the head, which is capable of 
distension with air, like that beneath the throat of the 
iguana. This is particularly large in one species, which, 
from the form it presents, is called the mitred basilisk. 
When this was first discovered, the fabulous basilisk was 
referred to it, but probably without foundation, as this 
species is only found in South America, and its peculiar 
form could scarcely, therefore, have served as the origin 
of the marvellous ideas attached to the name. 

342. The third family, the GeckotidjE, consists of a 
large number of animals bearing a strong resemblance to 
each other in general characters. They are all noctur- 
nal, and pass the day in obscure places ; their eyes are 
large, and their pupil contracts under the influence of 
light, like that of cats, into a very small aperture. Their 
flattened form and broad head give to them a very striking 
and peculiarly disagreeable appearance, which is aided by 
their sombre and somewhat toad-like hue ; hence, al- 
though timid and harmless, they are always regarded by 



392. What of ancient fabulous animals ? 

393. Describe the true basilisks. 



228 



ZOOLOGY. 



the vulgar as having a venomous character, but without 
the least foundation in truth. Most of them possess claws 
at the extremities of the toes, and these are capable of 
being retracted like those of the Felinae. They appear 
more useful to their possessor in climbing, however, than 
in securing their prey, which consists principally of in- 
sects. The Geckos are found in most warm countries in 
both hemispheres. They frequent buildings ; and some 
species have a peculiar organization of the feet, by which 
they can climb smooth perpendicular walls, or even run 
beneath ceilings. They are often useful in cleaning 
houses of musquitoes and spiders ; but it is said that 
articles of food over which they have passed acquire 
poisonous properties, in consequence of an acrid exuda- 
tion from the feet. It is difficult to know how much credit 
to give to such statements ; equally positive ones, which 
are entirely destitute of foundation in fact, being circulated 
in this country in regard to the toad. 

343. The Chameleonid^e, or Chameleon tribe, are few 
in number ; but they present so many anomalies of organ- 




Chameleon. 

ization, that it is necessary to separate them from all the 
other saurians, and to rank them as a distinct family. 
They are characterized, in the first place, by the structure 
of the feet, which are adapted for climbing like those of 
the scansorial birds (such as the parrot), having two of the 
toes opposed to the other three. The tongue also affords 



394. Describe the third family of Qerkos. 



SAURIA THE CHAMELEON. 229 

a remarkable character ; it is fleshy, and capable of enor- 
mous elongation ; the extremity is thickened or club- 
shaped, and is furnished with a viscous secretion at its 
extremity. It is by this organ that the chameleon entraps 
its insect food ; for, by suddenly darting out the tongue, 
the insect is glued, as it were, to the end, and instantly 
conveyed to the mouth This is the only part of the body 
that moves quickly ; the limbs are often quite motionless 
for hours. When the chameleon walks, it advances with 
the greatest circumspection, and there seems a want of 
power to combine the actions of the different members. 
But when once attached to a branch or twig by the grasp- 
ing of its feet, it seems to have little disposition to quit its 
hold. 

•*44. The peculiar conformation of the eyes of the 
chameleon adds much to the general singularity of its 
aspect. They are large and prominent, but so much 
covered by the scaly skin of the orbits, that there only 
appears a small hole in the middle opposite the pupil*. It 
is no uncommon thing to see the animal directing its eyes 
in two different ways at once ; one eye looking forwards, 
for example, the other backwards, sideways, or upwards. 
This power must be very useful in compensating for the 
fixity of the body itself, so as to give information of the 
proximity of food in any direction. The powers of ab- 
stinence possessed by this singular race are very great, 
and hence most probable arose the fable of their living on 
air. They do not appear inclined to take food in confine- 
ment ; and have yet been seen to shrink but little during 
many weeks of almost entire abstinence. 

345. The chameleon has been most remarkable, how- 
ever, for its power of changing colour, which was known 
to the ancients, and is commonly supposed to be peculiar 
to it ; but, as already stated, other animals possess it in a 
greater or less degree. Much exaggeration has prevailed, 
as might be expected, in the description of this phenome- 
non. All the colours of the rainbow, as well as white and 



395. What of the Chameleons? 

396. What is peculiar in its structure ? 

20 



2^0 ZOOLOGY. 

black, have been represented to be assumed by it. Its 
natural hue, when at rest and in the shade, seems to be a 
bluish gray ; from this it easily changes to a brownish gray, 
or into a green. Sometimes the colour fades to a pale 
gray, and sometimes it deepens to a dark brown ; but these 
are the extremes. The phenomenon has been variously 
accounted for. Of late, it has been generally supposed 
that the hue of the skin depends upon the degree in 
which the colour of the blood is combined with that pecu- 
liar to the membrane ; and that it is altered by a change 
in the quantity of blood sent to the surface, which is in- 
creased by the distension of the lungs occasionally prac- 
tised by this animal. But the recent inquiries of Milne- 
Edwards have shown that this is only a partial cause, and 
that the change is principally owing to an alteration in the 
relative position of two layers of colouring matter which 
the skin contains, so that they may be displayed singly or 
in various degrees of combination. 

346. The last family of the Saurian Reptiles, the Sciv 
coiDjE, or Skink tribe, conducts us so gradually towards 
the Serpents, that it is difficult to know where to draw the 
line of demarcation between them. They are recognised 
by the shortness of the feet, the roundness of the body, 
and the equality of the tile-like scales over the whole sur- 
face ; their tongue is not capable of extension. They 
have all more or less of a snake-like form ; and in some of 
them only two feet are developed. The true Scincus pro- 
bably approaches to the general saurian type more closely 
than the rest of the group. It is furnished with four short 
but strong feet, and runs with considerable agility. The 
species which inhabits the south of Europe has been in repute 
from ancient times for its medicinal virtues, but probably 
w r ith as little foundation as there is for the idea of the 
noxious qualities of others. This one burrows in the 
sand with great quickness. There is a West Indian 
species, fr< quenting the hollows of trees, termed the giMey* 
ivasp ; this is falsely reputed to have an extremely venom- 
ous bite, when it is really scarcely capable of inflicting 

. \)7. Wliat of its changeable colour* f 



OPHIDIA, OR SERPENTS. 2ttl 

any injury whatever. These reptiles inhabit warm and 
dry situations; and, from the appearance of the teeth, it 
may bo concluded that insects constitute their chief if not 
the if only food. 

:>17. The Sep* has a more serpent-like body than the 
skink, and the feet are smaller and wider apart. These 
gradually become simpler in structure in various species; 
the number of toes being reduced, until the feet seem like 
simple hooks protruded from the body. The Ckalcis is 
another snake-bodied, small-legged saurian, which, in some 
peculiarities of its conformation, approaches a different 
group of serpents. In the bipes the anterior pair of feet 
is not developed ; and in the chirofes, the posterior pair is 
warning. In both these, the general conformation of the 
body, and the habits, so far as known, correspond with 
those of the common biind-worm, which is ranked among 
the Ophidia. 

Order V. — Ophidia. 

348. The animals composing this order are at once 
distinguished, not only from all other Reptiles, but from 
all other Yertebrata (except certain fishes of the eel kind) 
by the entire absence of the members or appendages for 
locomotion. Although no trace of these is ever percepti- 
ble externally, there are some species bordering upon the 
saurians, in which rudimentary legs can be detected ; and 
these approximate, therefore, towards the lizards in their 
own tribe, just as the two-legged, long-tailed lizards ap- 
proach the serpents in theirs. Although apparently so 
different from other reptiles, Serpents are to be distin- 
guished from lizards by little but the absence of extremi- 
ties ; since, in the possession of teeth, and in the scaly 
covering of their bodies, as well as in their general interior 
organization, they clos dy correspond with them. The 
elongated form of their bodies reminds us of the Worm 
tribe among the Articuiata, which they may be regarded 
as representing among the Vertebrata, just as the class of 
birds represents that of insects ; and they correspond with 

398. Describe the last fam ly in this order. 
39y. What variety is ciied ? 



232 ZOOLOGY. 

them in another very curious particular — the periodical 
exuviation of their skin. All serpents pass the coldest 
part of the year in a state of torpidity ; and it is on 
emerging from this that they slough or cast their skin. 
This is first detached round /the head, and is gradually 
pushed off by the animal, being turned inside out like the 
finger of a glove. 

349. The serpent, from various circumstances connected 
with its organization and habits, and from the reference 
made to it in the early history of the human race, has 
been employed emblematically more than almost any other 
animal. From its smooth and sinuous course, and its 
hurtful powers, it is commonly used to denote that subtle 
and insidious eloquence which deceives while it per- 
suades ; and on that account it was placed by the ancients 
on the caduceus of Mercury. From the venomous powers 
of many of the race, the serpent has also been used as an 
emblem of torment ; and the Furies were represented with 
snakes wreathed round their heads instead of hair. A 
serpent, coiled in a circle, and biting its tail, is the usual 
emblem of eternity. If we could abandon these ideas, 
and attend to the simple forms and movements of these 
animals, and their adaptation to the circumstances in 
which they are to exist, we could scarcely regard the 
greater part of them as otherwise than beautiful and 
graceful. 

350. The progression of serpents on the surface of the 
land is accomplished in two ways ; sometimes the whole 
body creeps along the ground, the scales on its under side 
serving (like the minute bristles of the earth-worm) as so 
many points of resistance to a backward movement, when 
the trunk is elongated, after being contracted; and some- 
times it is bent upwards into a series of arches, by which 
the tail is brought near the head; and when these are 
straightened, the head is thereby projected forwards, in 
crawling along the ground, they are much assisted by the 
points of the ribs, which do not meet again in a sternum, 

400. How is the order of Serpents characterized ? 

401. What allegorical uses ot the serpent are cited? 



OPHIDIA, OR SERPENTS. 233 

but bear upon the ground, and serve as so many short 
feet, having a certain power of movement in themselves 
by means of the intercostal muscles. Most serpents can 
swim when placed in the water; and there is one group 
which is pre-eminently aquatic, and is distinguished by 
its vertically flattened tail. So closely do the members 
of this group resemble certain species of the eel tribe, that 
it is not always easy to determine to which a specimen 
belongs, until its respiratory organs have been examined. 
The great flexibility of the body is partly due to the very 
large number of vertebras (from 2 iO to 31)0) composing 
the spinal column, each of which is united to those before 
and behind it by a very beautiful ball-and-socket joint. 

351. A large group of serpents is distinguished by the 
possession of venomous teeth, or poison fangs, in addition 
to the ordinary teeth. These are sharp, long, and tubular; 
they are connected at their roots with a gland by which 
the poison is secreted ; and this is instilled into the wound 
through the tube in the tooth. The jugglers in the east, 
who exhibit their power over the most venomous serpents, 
prevent them from doing mischief, either by extracting 
the poison fangs altogether, or by stopping their apertures 
with wax, or by causing them to bite frequently upon some 
soft substance, by which the supply of the poison is tem- 
porarily exhausted. It is in the tribe of venomous ser- 
pents that we meet with the remarkable phenomenon of 
the production of the young alive ; this is due to the 
hatching of the egg, before it is laid, by the parent ; and 
in the viper (in which the fact has been chiefly observed) 
either mode of production may take place, under the in- 
fluence of circumstances which can be regulated by the 
experimenter. 

352. As in the case of other reptiles, we find that ser- 
pents only attain their full development in warm climates, 
having very little proper heat of their own. The species 
inhabiting the temperate zone are not nearly so remarkable, 

^02 How is locomotion performed ? 
03. What is remarkable in their structure ? 
*4. What of their teeth, and jugglers' experiments ? 
20* 



2*14 ZOOLOGY. 

either for size, brilliancy of colour, or poisonous properties, 
as those which exist between the tropics. The order may 
be divided into five families : — (i.) The ColuberidjE, 
consisting of the Boas, Pythons, Colubers, and other non- 
venomous snakes not belonging to the subsequent orders. 
(n.) The CrotalidjE, containing the Rattlesnake, Viper, 
and all the venomous species, (in.) The Hydrophid^e, 
or Water-snakes, (iv.) The Amphisb^knid^:, or Double- 
walkers, (v.) The Anguinid^, or Slow-worms. These 
last approximate the Lizards, in the possession of rudi- 
mentary legs under the skin, as well as in other points of 
their organization. 

853. The Coluberid^e are particularly distinguished 
by the power of dilating the opening of the jaws to an 
enormous extent, so as to permit of animals being swal- 
lowed which are much larger than the diameter of the 
serpent itself. This is accomplished by the separation of 
the jaw-bones into various pieces, which are very mova- 
ble on one another and on the skull. The most remarka- 
ble species of this family, which is the most numerous of 
the order, are the Boa Constrictors* of the New World 
and the Pythons of the Old ; these, when full grown, 
attain the length of from thirty to forty feet, and in thick- 
ness nearly equal a man's body. They do not fear to 
attack any animal ; and, if they can once coil themselves 
round it, crush it by the enormous combined power of 
their muscles, in spite of all its means of resistance and 
defence. Their power is much increased by coiling the 
tail round a tree, so as to give a point of support from 
which the muscles may act more efficiently ; and it is in 
this manner that they commonly wait for their prey. 
When they have seized and entirely destroyed it by 
crushing, in which process all the principal bones are 
broken, they begin to swallow it. This process lasts 

* The name Boa Constrictor is commonly applied to the immense 
serpents of the East Indies; hut only those of the western hemi- 
sphere possess the characters which the naturalist now assigns to the 
genus Boa. 



405. Into what families is this order divided ? 



0PH1DIA THE BOA CONSTRICTOR. 



235 



some lime ; and when it is complete, the position of the 
mass in the alimentary tube is at once known by the ex- 
ternal protuberance. The process of digestion takes some 
days or even weeks for its performance, according to the 
size of the prey ; and during that time the monster lies in 




Boa Coustrictor. 

a very inactive state, only issuing forth to seek a new 
victim when the digestion of the last has been for some 
time finished. The hair, horns, and other least digestible 
parts, are usually disgorged during the process. The 
Boas are distinguished from other serpents by the presence 
of two projecting bones near the vent, which are called 
claspers, and which may be regarded as the rudiments of 
posterior extremities. 

354. The Colubers, strictly so called, are usually of 
comparatively small size; but their habits are the same 
in proportion. The common snake of this country attacks 
small quadrupeds, frogs, birds, &c, in precisely the same 



40b. What is remarkahle in the first of these ? 

407. What different species does it include ? 

408. How are they formidable enemies ? 



236 ZOOLOGY. 

manner that the boa seizes its larger victims. It is fond 
of marshy situations, and takes to the water readily, in- 
flating its lungs so as to render itself buoyant. The 
flexibility of body, which is their means of obtaining sup- 
port, is greater in the non-venomous serpents than in the 
Crotalidae, which have another mode of procuring it. 
This is shown by suspending a coluber by its tail ; it can 
bend its body so as to bring its head to the point at which 
it is held ; this the venomous serpents cannot do. All the 
smaller species of this family are perfectly harmless to 
man, and may be handled without fear. Many of them 
are remarkable for the brilliancy of their colours, and 
others for the extreme regularity of their markings. 

355. The Crotalid^e, or Venomous Serpents, do not 
differ much in external characters from the preceding 
family ; but the character of their teeth is quite sufficient 
to distinguish them. The poisonous properties of the 
different species vary considerably ; in general they are 
more severe in the serpents of warm climates than in 
those of temperate regions. Cases of death from the bite 
of the British viper are very rare, and are generally to be 
attributed in part to some previously existing derangement 
of the system. There are many serpents in the torrid 
zone, however, whose bite is fatal to man and other large 
animals in a few hours, and to small animals much 
sooner. 

356\ This family contains two principal series — the 
Rattlesnakes and the Vipers. The former are generally 
regarded, but probably incorrectly, as the mo it venomous 
of all serpents. The rattle at the end of the tail, which is 
their distinguishing characteristic, is formed of several 
separate pieces of a dry horny substance, one of which is 
received within another. They are quite loose, and re- 
ceive no nourishment after they are once formed. A new 
piece is said to be added every time the skin is cast, 
which usually takes place twice a year. The sound 



409. Describe the Colubers. 

410. What is said of the family ot venomous serpents? 

411. How are they subdivided? 



OPHID1A THF VIPERS. &37 

made by the rattle is not great in the ordinary motion of 
the serpent, and cannot be heard at more than two or three 
yards' distance. Several species of Crotalu* are described, 
varying in length from four to eight feet. They are all 
natives of America. Their ordinary food consists of birds, 
squirrels, and other small animals. It was once supposed 
that they possessed the power of charming or fascinating 
these animals, so as to draw them by degrees to enter their 
throats. This is certainly an error; but it is equally cer- 
tain that most animals are so terrified at the sight of the 
rattlesnake as to lose the power of escape, and to become 
an easy prey when it darts upon them. There is a pe- 
culiar savageness about the aspect of these venomous ser- 
pents, when looked at in front, which to a certain extent 
announces the danger to be apprehended from them. In 
their ordinary habits they are tranquil and sluggish, not 
wantonly injuring man, moving slowly, and biting only 
when provoked ; but they are more dangerous in propor- 
tion to the heat of the season. 

357. The Vipers, being destitute of the peculiar cha- 
racteristic of the Rattlesnakes, are more like the Coluberi- 
dae ; their forms, however, are less elegant, their colours 
less splendid, and their movements less active. In gene- 
ral, they are remarkable for the dark lurid tints of their 
covering. The most celebrated species of this group is 
the cobra di capello or spectacle-snake of the East Indies. 
Its first name, given to it by the Portuguese, signifies 
hooded snake, and is derived from the power of dilating 
the skin behind the head, when irritated, so as to give the 
appearance of a hood or cowl. The common English ap- 
pellation is bestowed in consequence of a mark, in the 
shape of a pair of spectacles, behind its head. This is 
one of the most deadly serpents of the East. An equally, 
if not still more, venomous snake, however, exists in some 
of the West Indian Islands. This is the trigonocephaly.*, 
which in many of its characters approaches the Rattle- 
snakes, but has no appendage on its tail. It is of large size, 



412. Describe the structure and habitsofrattlesnak.es. 

413. What of vipers, and their variety ? 



2°»8 ZOOLOGY. 

having been observed to attain the length of eight or nine 
feet : in consequence of the incessant warfare now made 
against it, however, it seldom attains its full size. It is 
found abundantly in sugar plantations — a field of canes 
bring seldom cut, in the islands it frequents, without seve- 
ral being found in it ; and as its bite, when severe, is 
almost certain death, it is much dreaded by the negroes. 
It usually feeds on lizards, small birds, and especially on 
the rats which have been introduced from Europe into 
these colonies, and which have multiplied to an immense 
extent. The bite of this, as of other venomous serpents, 
varies in its consequences according to the state of health of 
the bitten subject, the depth and number of the wounds, 
the time which has elapsed since the animal last made use 
of its fangs, and consequently the amount of poison 
which has penetrated into the system. 

358. The common viper of this country is remarkable 
for its variations in colour, which have caused many new 
species to be formed that have really no existence. These 
variations appear to have some relation with the aspect of 
the ground on which the individual lives; a dark red 
soil, for example, being accompanied by a corresponding 
shade in the viper. It has a greater preference for dry 
situations than the common snake, and is often found 
basking on rocks and sands exposed to the sun. It 
lives on the same food as the coluber, destroying it, how- 
ever, in a different manner. It feeds at considerable in- 
tervals, and may be kept altogether without food for a 
length of time : three or four mice are said to be sufficient 
for a viper during a year. The Cerastes, or horned 
vipers, are so named from the presence of a pair of little 
hornlike bony projections on the forehead ; these give to the 
animal, which is of a livid gray, quite a terrific appearance. 
This is an extremely venomous species. The group con- 
tains some species of partially aquatic habits, which are 
indicated by the vertical flattening of the tail. 

M59. The HvDROPHiD.E,or Wat ?r- Serpents, are compa- 
ratively few, and are limited in their geographical range. 

414. Wh n other varieties of viper are !i >re Runted ! 



0PH1D1A THE SLOW-WORM. 2J9 

They are mostly found in the seas and rivers of the East 
Indies, and in some localities they are by no means un- 
common. They are chiefly known by the very decided 
vertical compression of the tail and hinder part of 
the body, which may thus, be compared to the tails of 
fishes ; hence they swim with considerable facility, oc- 
casionally coming to the surface to respire. They pos- 
sess poison-fangs, and are more dangerous than crocodiles 
or sharks to persons entering the water where they abound. 
One species exists in the rivers and canals of India, and 
attacks animals which come to bathe or drink, as well as 
devotees whilst performing their ablutions ; others are 
confined to the sea, where they feed upon fish. It is 
stated that they will occasionally make their way into 
boats. Their colours are generally bright. 

;*()0. The Amphisb.enid.e, or Double- Walkers, are a 
still smaller group, intermediate in some respects between 
the true serpents and the slow-worms. They derive their 
name from the power of moving either backwards or for- 
wards with equal facility. The two extremities of the 
body are so much alike, that they would not be distin- 
guished by a superficial observer, the eyes being so very 
small as sometimes to appear wanting; the whole body is 
of nearly equal diameter. This group is restricted to the 
warmest parts of South America. Notwithstanding the 
common idea of its venomous properties, it is quite harm- 
less, and subsists on ants and other small insects. It has 
not the power of separating the bones of the jaws, which 
distinguishes the true serpents. 

'Mi. The Anouinidje may almost be called either liz- 
ards or serpents, so remarkably do they combine the cha- 
racters of the two orders. In one species the rudiments 
of hind legs form a visible projection near the vent; and 
in another the anterior ribs are connected by a cartilage 
which is the rudiment of a sternum. The common slow- 
worm or blind-worm of this country has received its second 
name from the supposed absence of eyes ; this is an ab- 



415. What of Water Serpents ? 

416. What is peculiar in ihe Double-Wallers ? 



21 I ZOOLOGY. 

surd error, however, as the eyes, though small, are very 
brilliant. It is a perfectly harmless animal, feeding on 
insects, slugs, &c. It is said to swallow frogs, birds, and 
mice ; but this is impossible, as the bones of its jaw do not 
separate in the middle, and its swallow is consequently small 
and not dilatable. When alarmed, it throws the whole of its 
muscles into contraction in a peculiar manner, and is then 
very brittle, so that it frequently loses its tail by various 
accidents ; in the course of a year, however, this member 
is replaced. There is a large species of this family exist- 
ing in America, which attains the length of two feet, and 
from its extreme fragility is called the glass-serpent. 

362. The Serpents are connected with the Amphibia 
by the curious genus Csecilia, or naked serpent, which 
will be described as a member of that class. 



CLASS IV.— AMPHIBIA. 

363. The animals composing the class Amphibia were 
included by Cuvier and many other zoologists under the 
general designation of Reptiles. There seems, however, 
sufficient reason for separating them into a distinct group 
of equal rank. They may be regarded as intermediate in 
their structure, and in their habits and mode of life, as well 
as in many of their forms, between Fishes and true Rep- 
tiles ; and they bear a still more remarkable relation to these 
classes, in that change which many of them undergo at a 
certain period of life, by which they become transformed 
from the nature and habits of the former to those of the lat- 
ter class, by a metamorphosis analogous to that of Insects. 

;U)4. " To any person," it has been well remarked, 
" capable of appreciating the interest attached to the study 
of physiological phenomena, the contemplation of an ani- 
mal which, at one period of its life, is endowed exclusively 
with the organs of aquatic respiration, resembling the gills 
of fishes, with means of locomotion adapted only to a con- 
stant residence in the water, and with a digestive apparatus 



417. Describe the last variety. 

418. What of the Amphibia'/ 



CLASS AMPHIBIA FIRST ORDER. 241 

fitted exclusively for the assimilation of vegetable food, 
assuming by degrees trie function of atmospheric respira- 
tion, acquiring limbs which are formed for leaping on land 
with great strength and agility, and manifesting the most 
voracious carnivorous Appetite, will not only excite feel- 
ings of the deepest admiration, but necessarily lead to the 
investigation of the laws by which such remarkable 
changes are governed." 

305. By the term amphibious animal, in popular lan- 
guage, is understood a being adapted to live on land or in 
water. Of such we shall meet with many instances ; but 
we always find that the organization of the animal is con- 
structed for only one of these modes of life, and that it 
only resorts to the other under peculiar circumstances. 
Thus, some insects can maintain life, even in their perfect 
state, beneath the surface of water, although it is the 
habit of the class to breathe air ; but this is only by 
means of a peculiar modification of their structure, which 
enables them to carry a supply of air down with them. 
On the other hand, many Crustacea can leave the water, 
even for a long period, although they breathe by gills ; but 
this is only by means of a special provision for the purpose 
of keeping them moist. The cetaceous mammalia are 
adapted, like the rest of the class, to breathe air ; but they 
are enabled to carry down with them a sufficient supply 
of it to last them for some time under water. 

360. The class we are now considering offers us the 
only instances of animals possessing two sets of respiratory 
organs, one adapted to breathe air, and the other to aerate 
the blood, by exposing it to water. In most of the species 
composing it, lungs and gills do not exist at the same time, 
at least in a state of activity ; the latter gradually disap- 
pearing as the former are developed. But in a few spe- 
cies the gills are retained during the whole of life, even 
after the lungs are capable of aerating the blood. These 
are, then, the only true amphibious animals ; but the term 



419. What extraordinary transformation is cited ? 

420. How is amphibious to he understood? 

421. What of the respiratory organs ? 

21 



212 ZOOLOGY. 

Amphibia may be very properly applied to all such as 
undergo this kind of metamorphosis, breathing by gills 
alone at the commencement of life, and afterwards ac 
quiring lungs by which air can be respired. 

;*67. The general peculiarities of the Amphibia may 
be thus stated : — Like fishes and reptiles, between which 
they are intermediate, they are oviparous and cold-blooded, 
but their skin is soft and naked, being destitute of scales 
or plates. Most of them undergo a metamorphosis which 
has reference to a change of condition, from the form of a 
water-breathing fish to an air-breathing reptile ; and, 
when they have attained their perfect condition, they 
closely resemble true reptiles in general character. In 
many species, however, little change is seen from the 
time that the animal emerges from the egg to its adult 
age. With the exception of the frogs, they have much 
the form of lizards (among which several of them were 
formerly classed), and have generally four feet and o 
lengthened tail. 

368. The class, which contains but a small number of 
different genera, may be best subdivided into orders 
chiefly according to the degree to which the metamor- 
phosis proceeds. Thus, in the first, Anoura, embracing 
the Frogs and Toads, the gills are entirely lost in the 
perfect state, and the tail also disappears. In the Urodela, 
including the Salamanders, Water- Newts, &c, the gills 
disappear in the perfect state, but the tail is retained. The 
Amphipneurta, to which the Proteus and Siren belong, 
retain their gills during the whole of life ; the tail con- 
tinues to form a large part of the body, and in some in- 
stances only two legs are developed. In the Abranchia, 
an order which consists only of two little-known genera, 
no gills have been found at any period of life, but the 
body and tail are evidently formed for swimming. And 
in the Apoda, including only one genus, the Csecilia, the 
body is altogether destitute of feet, and has a serpent-like 
form. 



422. Describe their general peculiarities. 

423. How are they divided info orders ? 






ANOIIRA THE FROGS. 5£l3 

Order I. — Anoura. 

3 '9. The principal subdivisions of the first order are 
the Ranid^e, or Frog* tribe, and the Bufoid^e, or Toad 
tribe. The former frequent water, and are adapted for 
swimming in it ; the latter are usually found at a dis- 
tance from water, and are much less adapted for active 
movements of any kind. The metamorphosis of both these 
is attended with the same general phenomena ; and as the 
animals themselves are so well known, a description of 
this process will be a sufficient account of those which in- 
habit Britain. It is one very easily observed, for, by ob- 
taining a little water containing young tadpoles, the whole 
process may be made to go on under our eyes, and the 
young naturalist is earnestly recommended to watch it for 
himself. 

370. The spawn, soon after its disposition in pools, 
consists of a transparent gelatinous mass, enveloping a 
number of little black dots, which are regularly distributed 
through it. and which are the eggs. These are abund- 
antly found in stagnant pools in the month of April, being 
usually deposited (in this country) at the end of March, 
and hatched about a month afterwards. When the tad- 
pole first emerges, it is seen to present, in every respect, 
the appearance of a fish. It has a large oval head, and 
an elongated tail, flattened vertically, by the vibrations 
of which it swims actively through the water. The gills 
are found hanging in tufts on each side of the head ; and 
if t xamined with a microscope, the motion of the blood 
through them may be very beautifully seen. The circula 
tion may be observed, also, with great facility, in the fin-like 
expansion on the upper and under edge of the tail. Very 
soon, however, the gills are withdrawn, as it were, into 
the head, being covered over by a fold of skin, analogous 
to the operculum, or gill-plate of fishes. The little crea- 
ture, which at first seemed to derive its subsistence from 
the fluid absorbed within the body and on its surface, now 
seeks its food amidst softened or decomposing vegetable 



424. How is the first order subdivided ? 



244 ZOOLOGY. 

matter ;** and, to give greater power of movement, the sur- 
face of the tail is considerably increased. 

371. The tadpole now undergoes but little change in 
its external form for a considerable time, but increases 
rapidly in bulk. The first appearance of limbs is seen in 
a little tubercle or knob which projects at the back of the 
head : this is the rudiment of the hind leg. It soon ac- 
quires somewhat the form of the perfect limb, the toes 
budding, as it were at the extremity ; but it still continues 
very short, even in proportion to the diminutive size of 
the animal. Meanwhile, the fore legs are also budding 
out in the same manner, and gradually assume their dis- 
tinct and ultimate form. During this process, the deve- 
lopment of the body goes on at the expense of the tail, 
which is gradually removed by absorption, so that the 
hinder part of the body becomes rounded. The gills dis- 
appear by a similar process. 

372. The little animal has now undergone its complete 
development, and having, at the same time, become ca- 
pable of respiring air by true lungs, and of moving freely 
on land by means of its hinder legs, it comes to the shore 
to feed on small insects and worms, which are hencefor- 
ward to constitute its nutriment. Such multitudes of these 
newly-perfected little beings are often found in damp 
weather enjoying their new scene of existence, as to have 
given rise to many stories of showers of frogs having de- 
scended from the sky, which are still believed in some 
parts of the country. They now grow with great rapidity 
during the remainder of the year ; but on the approach 
of winter they retire to the mud at the bottom of the water, 
where they congregate in large masses, remaining torpid 
until the return of spring. 

37;*. Frogs, in various stages of their growth constitute 
an important article of the food of other animals. In their 
tadpole state, they are devoured in large numbers by the 
different species of newts, and by small fishes ; and when 



425. Describe the metamorphosis here named. 

426. How is the development of the animal marked? 

427. What of showers of Frogs ? 






ANOURA THE FROGS. 



245 




Frog. 



adult, by larger species of fish, especially pikes, by 
many of the smaller Carnirora, 
such as the weasel and pole- 
cat, and by almost every spe- 
cies of water- fowl, as well as 
by other birds ; of the common 
snake they serve as the prin- 
cipal food. Such is the destruc- 
tion occasioned by all these ene- 
mies, that probably not one in a 
thousand of those that had emerged from the egg in the 
spring ever reaches its winter retreat. The species which 
is eaten by man in continental countries, is not a native 
of England ; but the common frog of this country is equally 
palatable and wholesome, though it does not contain quite 
so much muscle on the hind legs, the part employed for the 
table. In some of the West Indian islands, a large species 
is bred for this purpose, being very highly prized by the 
French inhabitants. 

374. Some remarkable exotic species of this family 
deserve notice, especially the Banaparadoxa, or Surinam 
frog. The tadpole of this frog is much longer than the 




Surinam Frog ; half of real length. 

adult ; in one specimen, of which the metamorphosis was 
carefully observed, the length, at the time when the legs 
began to show themselves, was eight inches, whilst the 
adult frog did not measure much more than three. The 
decrease was occasioned by the absorption of the tail ; and, 
from this remarkable circumstance, the idea took its rise 



428. What of their use as food ? 

21* 



2 SO ZOOLOGY. 

that the frog changed itself into a fish — it not being con- 
ceived possible that the animal could grow smaller. The 
Surinam frogs are, like the bull-frogs of North America, 
extremely noisy at night. The latter are the largest of the 
whole tribe, measuring eighteen inches from the muzzle to 
the extremities of the hind feet. Other clamorous species 
exist in Asia and in the oriental isles ; so that, in compa- 
rative freedom from them, Europe may be regarded as 
particularly favoured. 

375. The Hylse, or Tree-frogs, have suckers, like those 
of the cuttle-fish, at the extremities of the toes, by which 
they obtain a facility in climbing trees, and can attach 
themselves even to smooth surfaces. They are in general 
elegantly coloured, their aspect in some degree resembling 
that of their usual habitation. Those of America are or- 
namented with the most pleasing variety of colours. Al- 
though living upon trees during the summer, they are 
produced from pools in the spring, and hybernate in the 
mud during winter, like other frogs. 

376. The Bufoid^e, or Toads, are a perfectly harmless 
and inoffensive race, although certainly not inviting in 
their general aspect. The idea of their venomous cha- 
racter is altogether unfounded. The body is of a dull 
hue, its shape awkward, and its movements appear diffi- 
cult, but it is by no means deserving of that disgust which 
it has inspired in some naturalists as well as in the popu- 
lar mind. "The true lover of nature," observes Mr. Bell, 
u who, in the simplicity and singleness of heart which 
always belong to that character, seeks even in the less at- 
tractive of her works for those proofs of wisdom and be- 
neficence by which they are all characterized, will rather 
find in the very peculiarities which excite spleen and dis- 
gust, only fresh indications of the same discriminating 
wisdom, and the same never-failing, though often, to 
the superficial observer, mysterious and veiled benefi- 
cence. " 



429. What variety of species is named ? 

430. What of the bull-frogs of America? 

431. Describe the Tree-frogs. 






ANOURA THE TOAD. 247 

^77. Unpossessed of any power of active defence, or 
of rapid escape from its enemies, the dullness of its colour 
serves to shield it from observation. Its eye bears a re- 
markable expression of mildness and patient endurance, 
rather fitted to excite pity and compassion than disgust or 
repugnance. It issues forth from its concealment at twi- 
light in search of food ; and this consists of insects, worms, 
slugs, &c, the inordinate increase of which it is very use- 
ful in repressing. It seems to prefer that which is actually 
alive and in motion. When about to feed, it remains 
motionless, with its eyes turned directly forwards upon the 
object, and the head inclined towards it ; and in this at- 
titude it remains until the animal moves, when, by a stroke 
like lightning, the tongue is thrown forward upon the 
victim, which is instantly drawn into the mouth. So 
rapid is this movement, that it requires some little prac- 
tice, as well as close observation, to distinguish the dif- 
ferent motions of the tongue. This organ is folded back 
upon itself, as in the frog; and the under surface of the 
tip is imbued with a viscid mucous secretion, which ad- 
heres to the prey. This is generally swallowed alive f 
and its motion within the stomach may often be perceived 
for some time afterwards. 

;37*. The toad, like the rest of the Amphibia, becomes 
torpid in winter ; but, instead of returning to the water, 
like the frog, it chooses for its retreat some retired and 
sheltered hole, or a space amongst large stones. Like the 
other Amphibia, too, it is endowed with great tenacity of 
life, and can exist for a very long time deprived of food 
and almost of air. The knowledge of this fact has occa- 
sioned a disposition to give too ready credence to the 
various wonderful accounts which have been circulated, 
at different times, of toads being found alive, completely en- 
closed in solid rock, or in the heart of trees. It is not at all 
unlikely that a toad which has retired to a hollow in a tree 
in the autumn, may find itself so far enclosed in the spring 
as to be unable to escape ; and that, through the opening, 
it may obtain the requisite supply of air, and even of food. 



432. What of ihe structure and habits of Toads? 



248 ZOOLOGY. 

In process of time new wood may be deposited around it, 
so that the cavity shall be completely moulded upon its 
body ; and the opening will be gradually diminished. Still, 
a very small aperture will be sufficient to admit air, mois- 
ture, and minute insects, by which it may be supported 
for many years, being a long-lived animal ; and in none 
of the cases on record does there seem to have been such 
a minute examination of the cavity as to disprove the idea 
that a connection with the external air still existed. 

379. In a similar manner it is fair to explain the accounts 
of toads found in stones, &c. Such clefts as furnish these 
animals with winter quarters, often become filled up with 
gravelly and other fragments, which solidify to such a 
degree as almost to seem part of the rock itself. This pro- 
cess is taking place on a large scale in the fissures of the 
rock of Gibraltar. Toads may thus be gradually enclosed, 
in the same manner as in the wood of trees, and may still 
maintain some communication with the external air. That 
they should be found alive in solid masses of rocks, which 
were deposited long before toads were created, is what no 
one accustomed to scientific inquiry can believe ; and yet 
such are the kind of statements which come under the re- 
view of the naturalist. From the experiments which 
have been made to clear up the subject, by enclosing toads 
in plaster of Paris or hollowed pieces of wood, or by bury- 
ing them in garden pots deep under ground, it would 
appear that, when cut off from all supplies of food, and 
with a very limited supply of air, their lives might be pro- 
longed many months, but in no case longer than two 
years ; and that, when entirely deprived of air, they 
speedily perish. 

Order II.— Urodela. 

380. The animals of the order Urodela bear so strong 
a general resemblance to Lizards, that they were united 
with that group by Linnaeus, and are still popularly re- 
garded as such. The Salamanders and their allies, hovv- 

4133. \Vh:it other peculiarities of the toad are named ? 
How are thej some limes found in stones, &e. ? 
vVh i: is the result ol experiments wnii toads I- 



URODELA THE TRITONS. 249 

ever, are easily distinguished by the smoothness and soft- 
ness of their skin, which is entirely destitute of those scales 
which ail lizards possess. Moreover, they undergo a 
metamorphosis similar to that of the frogs, except that 
the change of form does not proceed to the same extent. 
Like the Anoura, this order may be subdivided into two 
families, of which one, that of the Tritons, is of aquatic 
habits even in the adult state, like the frogs ; whilst the 
oilier, that of the true Salamanders, bears more analogy 
with the toads in its aspect and habits. 

881. Of the Tritons several species exist in this coun- 
try, and are known under the names of Evat, Eft, Newt, 
&c. The largest is about six inches in length : it is not 
at all uncommon in ponds and large ditches, where it lives 
upon aquatic insects and other small living animals : it 
even devours the smaller species of newt. The eggs 
are laid in the spring, upon aquatic leaves, which are 
folded together by the animal ; and the young tadpole, 
when it comes forth, bears considerable resemblance to that 
of the frog. The gills, however, are in larger tufts, and 
they afford a most advantageous opportunity for observing 
the circulation. The anterior legs are the first developed; 
and evt n after they have arrived at nearly their full growth, 
the gills are very large, and actively performing their 
functions. The lungs are, however, gradually developed; 
and, towards the end of autumn, the gills are absorbed, and 
the animal breathes air only. Still it does not quit the 
water, but remains an inhabitant of that element, coming 
occasionally to the surface to breathe. 

382. The movement of the Tritons through the water is 
effected chiefly by means of the tail ; and during the act 
of swimming, the legs are turned backwards, so as to afford 
the smallest possible degree of resistance. At the bottom 
of the pond or vessel they creep by means of their little 
weak feet, which also serve for their progression on land. 
The large newt seldom quits the water, however ; but the 
small one is often found on land at the end of the summer, 



436. Describe the Salamander family. 

437. What of the several species of the Tritons? 



25 ) ZOOLOGY. 

creeping about amongst the herbage in the neighbourhood 
of the water, or in damp places, and sometimes even 
venturing into damp cellars. In both kinds the mile is 
distinguished from the female by a kind of membranous 
crest, which runs along the back and tail ; but this dis- 
appears by absorption at certain seasons, and is afterwards 
again renewed; whence the same animal, in its different 
states, has been accounted to belong to different species. 
Its colour also undergoes some change. 

383. It was on the smaller newt that Spallanzani tried 
his well-known experiments on the reproduction of por- 
tions of the limbs and tail. He found that the same mem- 
ber is regenerated by the animal several times in succession 
on being cut off; and this with the bones, muscles, ves- 
sels, and nerves, belonging to its original state. Like other 
Amphibia, it becomes torpid in the winter ; and this tor- 
pidity has been prolonged by artificial cold for three years. 
The animal has been completely frozen, too, in a solid block 
of ice ; and, when slowly thawed, it has appeared scarce- 
ly injured. The idea of its poisonous character, so gene- 
rally believed by the lower classes in this country, is 
wholly unfounded. 

381. Still more ridiculous are the stories which have 
been handed down from ancient times in regard to the 
marvellous powers of the salamander^ which was sup- 
posed to be capable of living uninjured in the midst of 
fire, and is even vulgarly reputed to be produced by a 
very intense heat. This is a land animal, of the same 
general character with the water-newt, but possessing a 
rounded instead of a flattened tail, and a surface somewhat 
warty, like that of the toad. It discharges, when alarmed, 
an acrid secretion from the tubercles in the skin, which is 
said to be poisonous to small animals. In other respects 
it is quite harmless, and is not possessed of any remarka- 
ble properties. The eggs of the salamander are hatched 
within the body, so that the young are produced alive, and 
the progress of the metamorphosis has been considerable 



438. What of their aquatic habits ? 

439. What curious experiments 3re referred to? 



. 



UR0DELA THE PROTEUS. 251 

before it sees the light. Nevertheless, it at first inhabits 
the water, and, when it has finally quitted it, frequents 
damp in preference to dry situations. No species exists 
in Britain, but the salamanders are pretty extensively dif- 
fused over other parts of the globe. 

Order III. — Amphipneurra. 

885. The animals belonging to the order Amphipneur- 
ta exactly resemble salamanders, the development of which 
has been checked just at the period of their transformation 
from aquatic to air-breathing animals. They retain their 
gills during their whole life, and acquire lungs in addition by 
the partial metamorphosis they undergo. The legs bear but 
a very small proportion in their degree of development to 
the tail ; and in some instances only one pair is formed. 
The first discovered animal of this order was the proteus, 
an inhabitant of the underground lakes of Carniola and 
Styria, and of the passages between them. So strongly 
does this resemble the larva of a salamander, that it was 
at first believed by naturalists to be such ; and it was only 
after the discovery of others of the same character, that its 
true nature was understood. Unlike most other animals, 
it appears to suffer injuriously from light ; for not only 
does it prefer dark places, but even dies if it be exposed to 
open day for any length of time without the power of 
hiding itself. 

386. The siren is an animal of similar character, in- 
habiting the North American rivers, where it feeds upon 
earth-worms, aquatic insects, &c, in search of which it 
burrows in the mud. Only the anterior pair of feet is de- 
veloped, and there is no rudiment of the other. The body 
has very much the form of that of the eel ; and sometimes 
it attains. the length of three feet. The menobranchus is 
another genus of this order, also an inhabitant of the rivers 
of North America. It grows to the length of about two 
feet, possesses four legs, and is said to be carnivorous and 
gluttonous. The axolotl is another genus of the same 



440. What is true and what is fabulous of the salamander ? 

441. What peculiar family is here described ? 



Z-y4 ZOOLOGY. 

general description, retaining the gills during the whole 
of life, and the body resembling in form that of the tritons. 
It abounds in the lakes near the city of Mexico, and is 
commonly sold in the markets as an article of food, being 
esteemed a luxury by the inhabitants. 

Order IV. — Abranchia. 

387. The order Abranchia contains only two genera, 
and these both peculiar to North America, the menopoma 
and the amphiuma. They are not known to undergo any 
metamorphosis, but breathe by lungs during the whole pe- 
riod of life, and have never been seen destitute of legs. 
These are, however, very short, and seem almost useless 
appendages to the body, which is shaped like that of an 
eel. It is not improbable that, as in the salamander, the 
egg may be hatched within the body of the parent, and 
that the young may not come forth until it has passed 
through its tadpole state. 

Order V. — Apoda. 

388. The order Apoda contains but one genus, the 
Csecilia, blind-newt, or naked serpent. This was placed 
by Cuvier among the Serpents, from the snake-like form 
of the body, which is destitute of any rudiments of legs. 
But, in the absence of scales on the skin, as well as many 
anatomical characters, it rather corresponds with the Am- 
phibia, forming, however, a most interesting transition to 
the next class. It is now known to undergo a metamor- 
phosis. Its name was conferred by Linnaeus on account 
of its supposed blindness. The eyes are exceedingly 
small, and are nearly hidden under the skin, and it is be- 
lieved that, in some species, these organs are altogether 
wanting. These animals frequent the rivers and marshy 
grounds of many tropical countries : further information 
in regard to them is much needed. They are said to bur- 
row in the ground, and to live very much in the manner 



442. Name the other species here cited. 

Detcribe the fourth order nod irs genera. 



FISHES. 253 

of earth-worms. As far as is known, they are perfectly 
harmless. 

389. From this sketch of the class Amphibia, it will be 
seen that, in a scientific point of view, it is one of the most 
interesting in the whole animal kingdom. Though of lit- 
tle direct benefit to man, it is certainly as harmless as any 
tribe. And thus, although the forms of many of the spe- 
cies offend against our notions of beauty, and their love- 
songs give them the character of "horrible musicians," 
the aversion and prejudice with which they are ordinarily 
regarded would be justly replaced by the pleasure of in- 
telligent curiosity. 



CLASS V.— FISHES. 

390. The animals of this class are the only Vertebrata 
which, in their adult state, are formed for respiring beneath 
the surface of the water they inhabit. The whale tribe, 
which so much resemble them in external aspect and in 
mode of life, are all air-breathing animals, and they are 
as certainly drowned by being prevented from taking in 
air at the surface, as are any species which ordinarily live 
on land, though, by their peculiar conformation, they are 
enabled to sustain the want of it for a longer time. The 
same is true of frogs, salamanders, and other reptiles, 
which pass a large part of their time under water. But 
with fishes the reverse is the case. In these, as in the 
Mollusca, the blood receives its necessary purification by 
being exposed to the air contained in the surrounding 
fluid. This is done by its transmission to a series of deli- 
cate filaments, constituting the gills, each of which con- 
sists of two minute blood-vessels (one to convey the blood 
from the heart, and the other to return it) enclosed in a 
delicate membrane, through which the chemical changes 
between the blood and the air take place. But these fila- 
ments do not hang loosely in the water, as in the greater 
part of the Mollusca. They are attached to bony or car- 



441. Describe the fifth order and it? per-iiluiriries. 

22 



254 ZOOLOGY. 

tilaginous arches, which are arranged in pairs behind the 
head, and are more or less protected by a special covering; 
and there is a provision which insures a proper change 
of the fluid in contact with them. The cavity in which 
they lie is connected with that of the mouth, and water is 
constantly taken in by that opening, and forced by muscu- 
lar action over the surface of the branchiae or gills, passing 
off through the apertures which are seen behind the head. 

391. The quantity of air contained in water is very 
minute ; and if the fish have need of a larger supply, it 
takes it in at the surface from the atmosphere. This is 
often seen in the summer, when the increased tempera- 
ture renders the organic functions more active, and occa- 
sions a greater demand for air. It may also be seen when 
the quantity of water is limited, so that all the air is soon 
exhausted from it. Fishes that are kept in such water, 
and are prevented from coming to the surface, are drowned 
as truly as an air-breathing animal would be under simi- 
lar circumstances. Hence the desirableness of frequently 
changing the water in which gold-fish are kept, and of 
exposing as large a surface of it as possible to the atmo- 
sphere, that absorption from it may supply the air removed 
by the animal. The death of a fish out of water is attri- 
butable chiefly to the clogging together of the filaments of 
the gills, so that the air cannot act upon them, and the 
drying up of those which, being at the surface, are in 
contact with the air. Hence, if the branchial arches 
are kept separate, and their filaments be preserved in a 
moist state, respiration will go on. There are some fishes 
in which this is naturally effected by a peculiar contriv- 
ance, and in others it may be artificially accomplished. 

♦392. But there is another way in which the atmosphere 
acts injuriously upon fishes. Not only from the gills, but 
from the whole surface of the body, a very rapid evapora- 
tion of fluid takes place in dry air ; so that the weight 
diminishes considerably, and the tissues are incapable of 
performing their proper functions. Hence, if it be de- 



•1 IV What is peculiar in the class of fishes i 
446. Describe i heir organs of respiration. 






FISHES DESCRIPTION. 



2:>:> 



sired to keep fishes alive in air as long as possible, they 
should be surrounded by moist grass, or some other sub- 
stance which will effectually saturate with dampness the 
air in their neighbourhood. 

39-J. Whilst the respiratory organs of fishes immedi- 
ately indicate their adaptation to pass the whole of their 
lives in the water, the conformation of almost all of them 
exhibits an adaptation to rapid and energetic movement in 
that element. The form of the body is such as to oppose 
the least resistance to progression, whilst it is also such as 
to confer great propelling power. It is usually flattened 
in a vertical direction ; and the surface is extended by a 
finny prolongation of the spine above, and of correspond- 
ing rays below, and by the expansion of the tail in the 
same line. In this manner, a very large lateral surface is 
produced, whilst the resistance to forward movement is 
very small. The propulsion of the fish is chiefly effected' 
by the movement of the whole body and tail from side to 
side, which operates in precisely the same manner as the 
oar of the sculler; and this is facilitated by the great 
flexibility of the spine, the bones of which are so united 
together as to move with the slightest possible effort. 




Fish. 



a. dorsal fin ; 6, pectoral fin of one side ; c. ventral fins: d, anal fin; 
e : caudal fin. or tail. 

394. But though the propulsion of the fish is chiefly 
accomplished by the movement of the body itself, it is 



447. What of the presence of air in water? 

448. What of their locomotion ? 



256 ZOOLOGY. 

usually aided by lateral fins, which answer to the legs 
and arms or wings of higher Vertebrata. Besides the 
fins which have been already spoken of as existing on 
the central line of the body, above and below (of which 
the one running along the back is called the dorsal fin, 
and the one under the body the anal), there are generally 
found two pairs, of which one, corresponding to the an- 
terior extremities of other Vertebrata, is always situated 
near the head, and is called the pectoral ; whilst the posi- 
tion of the other, corresponding with the posterior extremi- 
ties of land animals, and called the ventral, is extremely 
variable. Sometimes the ventral fins are placed far back, 
in the usual position of hind legs ; and sometimes they 
are fixed far forwards, even anteriorly to the pectoral. The 
pectoral fins are usually connected more intimately with 
the spinal column than the ventral. These fins are com- 
posed of a membrane stretched over a set of bony or 
cartilaginous rays, which may be regarded as represent- 
ing the bones of the hand or foot. The bones which con- 
nect them with the spine are very short, and are hidden 
under the flesh ; so that the chief movement of the fin is, 
as it were, at the wrist and ankle joints. It is chiefly by 
their vibrations that the animal is raised or depressed in 
the water, and they also assist in changing its direction 
from side to side. The forward position of the ventral 
fins is chiefly noticed in those species whose habits involve 
a considerable variation of their depth in water. Some- 
times one, and sometimes both pairs of these fins are 
absent ; in the latter case the fish is said to be apodal or 
footless. In other instances the pectoral fins are enor- 
mously developed, like the wings of birds, and even enable 
the animal to rise out of the water and to skim for a short 
time along its surface. 

$95. Fishes being the lowest animals in which we find 
an internal skeleton for the special support and protection 
of the nervous system and its appendages, we might 
expect that it should sometimes present a comparatively 
imperfect form. This is found to be the case. In a very 

449. Describe their several fins. 



FISHES DESCRIPTION'. 257 

large proportion of the class, the skeleton is not bony but 
cartilaginous ; in some, nothing but a spinal column exists ; 
and in a few, scarcely any traces exist of a division of 
this into vertebrae. In such animals the whole conforma- 
tion of the body is so low as to remind us of the worm 
tribe ; and some among them, as the lamprey, were 
classed by Linnaeus with that group. On the other hand, 
there are some fishes which exhibit a distinct transition in 
the structure of their teeth, vertebral column, and respira- 
tory organs, to the class of Reptiles. Such are the lepi- 
Hos'eus, or bony pike, of the North American lakes, and 
a still more remarkable animal recently discovered — the 
tepi losiren. From the researches of Agassiz it would ap- 
pear that the proportion of these sauroid fishes (as they 
are termed from their resemblance to lizards) was much 
larger in a former epoch of the earth's history, fossil re- 
mains of them in the earlier strata being not uncommon. 
396. It is by the examination of such connecting links 
as these, that we arrive at the knowledge of the true 
character of an organ which has been usually supposed 
to be peculiar to this class — the swimming-bladder. This 
is not universally present ; but where it exists, it is usually 
found in the form of a bag more or less divided into two 
along the central line, lying under the spine. Sometimes 
this has a direct connection with the intestinal canal 
(usually between the stomach and mouth), and occasion- 
ally it is altogether closedu In ihe highest forms in which 
it exists, its correspondence with the luhgs of air-breath- 
ing animals is very evident ; and there is little doubt that 
air is taken into it from without for the purpose of respi- 
ration. In this lower or rudimentary condition, however, 
its office is more doubtful, especially where it is entirely 
closed. It is usually believed to contain air, and to serve 
as a means of regulating the specific gravity of the ani- 
mal, the swimming-bladder being compressed when the 
fish desires to sink, and allowed to expand when it desires 
to rise. In this manner it would seem the gold-fishes are 



450. Describe the peculiar structure of fishes. 

451. What variety is named ( 

22* 



258 ZOOLOGY. 

enabled to ascend and descend in the water, without any 
muscular effort visible to those who watch them. But it 
is remarkable that this organ is sometimes absent in a 
species nearly allied to one in which it is present, and 
that the want of it does not seem to make any difference 
in its powers. As a general rule, it is more constantly 
present in river fishes than in the inhabitants of the sea ; 
and it is more frequently absent in those which live habit- 
ually near the bottom of the water. 

397. The surface of the body is generally covered with 
numerous scales, which vary considerably in form and 
size in different species Each scale is composed of seve- 
ral plates, of which every one extends on ail sides beyond 
the one on its exterior; hence the appearance of numer- 
ous concentric lines on all sides, which mark the stages of 
growth, the larger plates being the latest formed. They 
thus resemble the shells of mollusca in their mode- of in- 
crease. Each scale is attached to the skin of the fish by 
its anterior edge, which is covered by those in front of it, 
whilst its posterior edge overlaps the scales behind it. 
This arrangement is not universal, however ; for the scaly 
covering is sometimes formed by a series of bony or even 
enamel plates, united to each other by iheir entire edges. 
Such an arrangement was very common in the fishes 
existing at the time of the coal formation, but is now much 
more rare. 

39S. When we consider that more than two-thirds of 
the earth's surface is covered with water, often to a very 
great depth, and that, as far as is known, the whole of this 
element is habitable by fishes (each stratum having some 
particular species formed to exist in it), little doubt can be 
entertained that they form the most numerous class of 
verti brated animals. Their numbers are kept up by their 
extreme fertility. The cod-fish has been ascertained to 
lay not much fewer than four millions of eggs at a single 
deposit; and in other species the number may even be 
greater. Their voracity is also extreme. Almost all of 

452. What of the swimming-bladder and its use ? 

453. What of the scales ? 

454. What ot their comparative fecundity ? 



FISHES CLASSIFICATION. 259 

than are adapted to devour and digest animal food, some 
of them living chiefly on Crustacea, mollusca, and other 
invertebrate inhabitants of the ocean ; and others having 
it for their especial function to keep down the inor- 
dinate multiplication of their own kind. Some of these 
attain a considerable size. The pike has been found 
nineteen feet long ; and there is evidence of one having 
lived for 267 years. The sun-fish has reached the length 
of twenty-five feet ; and some rays and sharks have ex- 
ceeded forty feet. 

399. The teeth of fishes are not usually instruments 
of mastication, but serve principally to hold their prey ; 
and they are ordinarily conical in form, sharp at the points, 
and curved backwards. They are not only placed on the 
jaws, but also on the tongue, the palate, and other parts 
of the passage into the stomach. In many fossil fishes, 
however, as in some at the present time, we find the jaws 
and palate furnished with hard enamelled plates, set 
together like a pavement, and fitted to bruise and break 
down the hardest substances that can afford them food. 
Thus the sparus browses, by means of these well-pro- 
tected jaws, upon the branching coral, for the sake of the 
animal matter which its cells protect. The food is usually, 
however, swallowed entire, and is digested in the capa- 
cious stomach of fishes, like the prey of the hydra, or 
fresh-water polype, in its simple but powerfully reducing 
cavity. 

400. The classification of Fishes proposed by Cuvier 
is probably the best that, in the present state of our know- 
ledge of this group, can be adopted. It is obvious that, 
from the peculiarities of the habitation of these animals, 
and the very imperfect manner in which the depths of the 
ocean, over a large part of the earth's surface, have yet 
been explored, a great number of existing species probably 
yet remain to be discovered. And it is also certain that 
the number of species formerly existing in the waters, 
and of which we have at present but very scanty re- 



455. What of their habits, size, and age ? 

456. What of their teeth ? 



ZOOLOGY. 

mains, was considerable, and that their forms often differed 
widely from those familiar to us. Hence, when these 
shall have been more completely investigated, it is not 
improbable that this classification must be greatly modified 
in order to include them. 

401. The primary division of the class is into the 
Osseous and Cartilaginous Fishes, the former having a 
hard bony skeleton, and the latter having one of less firm 
consistence, possessing but little calcareous matter. The 
former group is divided into six orders, which are princi- 
pally characterized by the structure and arrangement of 
the fin rays. These are distinguished as either consisting 
of a single piece — in which case, whether stiff or flexible, 
they are said to be spinous — or as consisting of a number 
of jointed pieces, divided at their extremities, when they 
are called soft or articulated. 

402. (i.) Acanthopterygii, or spiny-finned. In this 
order, which contains the greatest number of ordinary 
f shes, there are spinous rays in the first or anterior part 
of the dorsal fin, and sometimes these have no connecting 
membrane. The anal fin has also its first rays spinous, 
and triers is generally one such ray in the ventral. 

403. The three next orders are all soft or joint ed-finned, 
and come, therefore, under the general designation Mala- 
copterygii. They are distinguished from each other by 
the position or absence of the ventral fins. 

404. (n.) Malacopterygii Abdominales. In these, 
the ventral fins are attached to the abdomen behind the 
pectorals. They are a very numerous order, and include 
the greater part of the fresh-water fishes. 

405. (in.) Malacopterygii Sub-Branchtati. In this 
order the ventral fins are brought forwards under the 
pectorals, and the fish, which are chiefly marine, enjoy a 
considerable power of ascending and descending in the 
water. 

406. (iv.) Malacopterygii Apoda. These are fishes 
in which the ventral fins are always wanting, as are not 
urtfrequently the pectoral .also. 



457. How are they primarily divided? 



FISHES CLASSii R A I ION . 20 1 

407. The two remaining orders of Osseous Fishes are 
separated from the rest by other peculiarities. 

^05>. (v.) Lopabranchii (Tuft-Gilled) . In these, the 
gills, instead of hanging in regular fringes, like the teeth 
of a comb, from the branchial arches, are disposed in tufts, 
and the giii-covers open less freely than in the preceding 
orders. 

409. (vi.) Plectognathi. The members of this order, 
though retaining many of the characters of the Osseous 
Fishes, exhibit an evident transition to the Cartilaginous, 
both in the less complete ossification of the skeleton, and 
by the union of the bones of the upper jaw to each other 
and to the head. The opening of the gill-covers is still 
smaller. 

410. The Chondropterygii, or Cartilaginous Fishes, 
cannot be considered either superior or inferior to the 
others, but form, as it were, a parallel series with them. 
Some tribes exhibit the lowest organization which exists 
in the class, whilst others present many points of affinity 
to reptiles. The different parts of the skeleton, which, in 
the Osseous Fishes, are united by distinct joints, here 
frequently form one continuous piece. This is most re- 
markable in the head, which is composed of a single piece, 
in which, however, the principal parts found in the bony 
fishes may be distinguished by various ridges, furrows, 
and holes. This group contains three orders, distinguished 
from each other by the conformation of the mouth and the 
arrangement of the gills. 

41 1. (vn.) Chondropterygii Braxchiis Liberis (Free- 
Gilled Cartilaginous Fishes). In these, consisting chiefly 
of the sturgeons, the gills hang freely, and are covered 
with a gill-lid having a single wide opening, as in Osseous 
Fishes. 

412. In the other two, the gills are attached at the outer 
edge, and there is a separate opening for the escape of the 

r that passes over each arch. These, which are 
termed Chondropterygii Branchiis Fixis, or Fixed- 



458. Describe the several osseous vaneiies. 

459. What of the cartilaginous fishes ? 



262 ZOOLOGY. 

Gilled Cartilaginous Fishes, are distinguished from each 
other by the conformation of the mouth. 

41-$. (vin.) Selacii, or Sharks and Rays. Here the 
jaws are not united into a ring. 

414. (ix.) Cyclostomi (Round-Mouthed). These have 
a round fleshy lip, by which they adhere to their prey, 
obtaining their food by suction, and this is supported by a 
cartilaginous ring, formed by the union of the jaw-bones. 
It is in the fishes of this order that we find the vertebrated 
structure in its lowest form. 

Order I. — Acanthoprerygii. 

415. The Spiny-Finned Fishes are divided by Cuvier 
into fifteen families, the most important of which will now 
be noticed. 

416. (i.) PercidjE, the Perch tribe. These are very 
numerous in the waters of all warm climates, some species 
inhabiting the rivers, and others the open sea. Their 
bodies are oblong, and covered with hard or rough scales , 
and the gill-covers are toothed at the margin. They are 
mostly thoracic, or have the ventral fins under the pecto- 
ral. Some, however, are jugular; that is, have the ven- 
tral fins placed upon the throat, farther forwards than the 
pectorals ; and some are abdominal. Their teeth are 
very minute, and set close together in numerous rows. 
Their flesh is in general agreeable and wholesome. This 
family includes all the fish known as Perches, of which 
some species are found in almost all the rivers in the 
world, and a large number of marine fishes used as food 
on different shores. Some of the most remarkable are 
the trachinus, or weaver, which has a very prolonged 
and sharp dorsal spine, capable of inflicting a severe injury, 
and which fishermen believe (but erroneously) to have 
poisonous properties ; the uranosc-ipus. or star-gazer (so 
called from the position of the eyes upon the top of the 
nearly cubical head), which lies concealed in the mud, 
and attracts its prey by a filament which it protrudes from 



460. Describe each of the three varieties. 

461. Into how many families ie the first order divided ? 



ACANTHOFTERYlril — T.'IE l< LYING-FISH. 263 

its mouth, and which serves as a bait to small fishes ; the 
nemus many fillets), 'whose pectoral fins are pro- 
longed on each side into threads twice as long as the body, 
and of which a species inhabiting the Ganges, termed the 
mango-fish, is esteemed the most delicious in India; the 
sphyrxna, or sea-pike (to be distinguished from the com- 
mon pike), of which one tropical species, the barracuda, 
is much dreaded for its size and voracity ; the red mullets, 
or, more properly, surmullets, of the British seas ; and 
many others. 

417. (ii.) Triglhle, the Gurnard tribe. These bear 
a general resemblance to the Perches, but have the head 
peculiarly armed with spines or hard scaly plates. In 
several species the pectoral fins are very much extended ; 
but in none except the flying-fish are they sufficiently 
powerful to raise the animal out of the water. Many 
species of this tribe are found in the temperate seas, which, 
though inferior in flavour to the surmullets, supply whole- 
some and agreeable food. To this family belong the gur- 
nards and sticklebacks of our own coast; the scorpgena, 
a gregarious fish living among the rocks ; the sebastes, or 
Norway haddock, rather a large species, the spines of 
which are used by the Greenlanders as needles ; and a 
large number of others. The most interesting of ail is the 
dactylopterus or fli/ing-jish. This has a kind of supple- 
mentary pectoral fin on each side, formed of a membrane 
stretched over finger-like processes, which in the gurnards 
are unconnected. By the impulse of these on the surface 
of the water, the flying-fish can raise themselves to the 
height of several feet into the air, and can suspend them- 
selves above the surface for a few seconds, often skimming 
lightly over it for a considerable distance ; but they cannot 
sustain themselves in the atmosphere for any length of 
time. They are gregarious fish; and it is when a shoal 
of them is chased by the coryphsena (commonly but erro- 
neously termed dolphin) or some similar enemy, that the 
most remarkable leaps are taken. They not unfrequently 



462. Describe the Perch tribe, and its species. 

463. What of the Gurnard variety and species ? 



26 1 ZOOLOGY. 

fall upon the deck of a large vessel that ma}' be passing' 
amongst them. The finger-like processes are usually 
prolonged beyond the fins, and appear to possess an 
amount of sensibility unusual in such parts. 

4 IS. (m.) The SclenidjE, or Maigre family, have a 
general resemblance to the Perches, but differ from them 
in the absence of teeth from the palate, and some other 
particulars. They principally belong to tropical seas, a 
few inhabiting the Mediterranean. 

419. (iv.) The Sparid^e, or Sea-bream tribe, resemble 
the last in general form, but have no spines on the gill- 
covers. Some of these, including the genus spar us 
already mentioned as grinding down the stony corals, 
have the sides of the jaws covered with round flat teeth 
resembling a pavement. Others have teeth with cutting 
edges. 

420. (v.) Another small family, MenidjE, differs from 
the last chiefly in the great extensibility of the upper jaw. 

421. (vi.) The next family, Squamipennes, is so named 
because the soft and even the spinous parts of their dorsal 
fins are so covered with scales as not to be distinguished 
from the rest of their bodies. The most interesting genus 
is the Chsetodon, of which several species, remarkable for 
the beauty of their colours, abound in tropical seas. One 
of these, the C. rostratus, which has a very prolonged 
snout, has the faculty of shooting insects with drops of 
water projected from the mouth, and it then seizes them 
as they fall. This power is the more extraordinary, as, 
according to the laws of the refraction of light, the place 
of the insect will appear to the fish different from the 
reality — the rays passing from a rarer to a denser medium ; 
and the drop must not, therefore, be projected in the line 
in which the insect appears to be, but somewhat below it. 
This little fish, which is a native of India, is often kept 
in glass vases by the residents there, as gold-fish are in 
this country, for the purpose of affording amusement by 
its dexterity. 



4 * i 4 . What other families are here named ? 
465, Describe the fifth and sixth family. 



ACANTH0PTERYGI1 TMK SWORD-FISH. 2t>5 

422. (vn.) The next family, Scombkrid^e, or the 
Mackerel tribe, is one of very great importance to man. 
It comprises a large number of genera, a vast collection 
of species, and numberless individuals. The aspect of the 
common mackerel, with its spindle-shaped, beautifully- 
coloured, smooth, and small-scaled body, is well known. 
It very rapidly dies out of water, and soon becomes tainted. 
Mackerel has been supposed to be a migratory fish, on ac- 
count of its appearing on our shores in immense shoals at 
particular epochs. But it may be caught all the year round 
on our coasts, which shows that it does not wholly desert 
them, as is done by the really migrating tribes. The fact 
is, that it passes most of the year in the open sea, and that 
its object in approaching the shore is to deposit its spawn ; 
after which, those that have escaped being entrapped by 
the ingenuity of man, return to their former quarters. 
The extent and importance of the mackerel-fishery of 
Britain, especially in the south and east, are well known. 
The tunny is an allied species, attaining a much greater 
size, and also valuable as an article of food. This fre- 
quents the Mediterranean, and is occasionally seen on our 
own shores. It sometimes attains the length of fifteen or 
even eighteen feet. To this order belongs also the xiphia*, 
or sword-Jish, distinguished by its long pointed beak. 




Sword- Fish. 

This is a most powerful offensive weapon, and with it this 
fish attacks the largest inhabitants of the ocean. By its 
high dorsal fin arid expanded tail, it is able to impel itself 
forwards with great force ; and when attacking a large 

466. What of the Mackerel tribe, and its variety ? 
23 



2(56 ZOOLOGY. 

animal, it makes a violent dart against it, quite transfixing 
it with its sword. It has been known in this manner to 
drive its beak into the timbers of a ship, and, not being 
able to withdraw it, to break it off and leave it. The 
sword-fish abounds in the Mediterranean, but is less fre- 
quent in the Atlantic. It is very palatable as food ; and 
often attains the length of fifteen feet. The dory, of 
which one species is highly prized by epicures, is another 
fish of the same family. It is remarkable for the filamen- 
tary prolongations from its dorsal fins. And, lastly, may 
be mentioned the coryphse'na, commonly known as the 
dolphin. This is a large and splendidly coloured fish, 
which darts through the water like a radiant meteor, ex- 
hibiting an extraordinary play of colours when brilliantly 
illuminated. It has long been celebrated for its change 
of colour when dying. It swims with great rapidity, and 
is very voracious, committing great havoc among the fly- 
ing-fish and others of like size. The influence of light on 
the colour of animals is remarkably shown in the far 
superior brightness of the Indian Scomberidse, when con- 
trasted with the blackish hue of those of northern seas. 

4*23. (vm.) The family of T^nid^:, or Gibbon-shaped 
Fishes, is a small one allied to the Scomberidse, differing 
chiefly from it in the remarkable lateral flattening of the 
body. Few species are known on our shores ; one of the 
largest, lipidopus argy reus, the scabbard-fish, occasionally 
appears on these coasts ; it is about Hve feet long, swims 
with extreme rapidity, and often with the head above 
water. Allied to this is the trichiurus, some of the Indian 
species of which have been said to possess electric proper- 
ties ; but this is doubtful. 

424. (ix.) The Theutyes, or Lancet-Fish tribe, are 
another small family allied to the Mackerels, but are pe- 
culiar for their cutting spines on each side of the tail, and 
a horizontal spine before the dorsal fin. They have only 
a single row of teeth, and feed chiefly on marine plants. 
They use their powerful lancet-shaped spines very dex- 



467. Describe the sword-fish, and other species. 

468. What of the eighth and ninth families ? 






ACANTIIOPTERYGII THE CLIMBING PERCH. 207 

terously as weapons of defence ; and in this respect they 
may be compared to the horns of the Ruminantia. 

±'2o. (x.) The fishes of the tenth family, Pharyngin^: 
labyrinthu-form^e, are characterized by a very peculiar 
structure, from which they derive their designation. The 
membranes of the pharynx (or back of the mouth) are di- 
vided into small irregular leaves containing cells among 
them, which the fish can at pleasure fill with water; 
and, by ejecting a portion of this water, it moistens its 
gills, and may thus continue its respiration out of its pro- 
per element. By means of this apparatus, which resem- 
bles that possessed by the land-crabs, these fishes are en- 
abled to quit the pool or rivulet which constitutes their 
usual element, and move to a considerable distance over 
land. Such a provision is especially desirable in tropical 
climates, where shallow lakes are often dried up by a con- 
tinued draught, and their inhabitants must perish if not 
enabled to migrate. The people of India, who often wit- 
ness the appearance of these fishes where they were known 
not to exist, believe that they fall from heaven. Some of 
them are able not only to traverse plane grounds, but can 
climb steep banks, or even trees, in the course of their 
journeys. Of these the most furious is the anabas, com- 
monly known as the climbing-perch of Tranquebar, which 
climbs bushes and trees in search of its prey, a species of 
land -crab, by means of the spines on its back and gill-covers. 

42(5. (xi.) The MugilidjE, or Mullet tribe, are length- 
ened and often nearly cylindrical fishes, with a somewhat 
projecting snout, and a very small mouth placed beneath it. 
They are gregarious in their habits, frequenting the mouths 
of rivers in large troops, and constantly leaping up out of 
the water. There are several species found in European 
seas, of which the flesh is much esteemed. That best 
known on the British coast is the mugil chelo, or thick- 
lipped gray mullet. The fishes of this family feed in part 
upon crabs and other small Crustacea. 

427. (xn.) The members of the family Gobiod^:, or 
Gobv tribe, are known by the thinness and flexibility of 

469. What is peculiar in the tenth family ? 



2';8 ZOOLOGY. 

their dorsal spines. Many of them are remarkable for 
producing their young alive, the eggs being hatched 
within the body of the parent. This is the case with the 
blenny, of which several species frequent the British 
shores, living in small troops among the rocks. They are 
remarkably tenacious of life, being capable of being kept a 
good many days in moist grass or moss, but they are of little 
value as articles of food. One of the most interesting spe- 
cies of this family is the anarrichas lupus, or sea-wolf. 
It inhabits the northern seas, and is often met with on our 
shores, attaining the length of six or seven feet. It is 
very formidable in aspect, and the size of its teeth, with 
the colours and peculiar physiognomy of its head, remind 
the observer of the carnivorous Mammalia. Its manners 
accord with its aspect, for it is remarkably strong, very ac- 
tive, and equally ready to defend itself or to attack an enemy. 
It often enters the fishermen's nets, for the purpose of 
plundering them of the entangled fish ; and when the 
fishermen attack it, and it cannot escape, it fights like a 
lion. After receiving very severe injuries, and seeming 
dead, it will often inflict a sharp bite if incautiously irri- 
tated. It is seldom eaten in this country, through dislike to 
its appearance, but it furnishes light and wholesome food. 
The Arctic seas appear to be its appropriate locality, and 
there it attains a larger size than farther south ; it is very 
valuable to the Icelanders, who salt its flesh for food and 
employ its skin as shagreen. The true Gobies have the 
ventral fins placed far forwards, and united at their bases ; 
they are chiefly remarkable for the nest which they con- 
struct among the sea-weed for the protection of their young, 
which was observed by the ancients. They prefer a 
clayey bottom, in which they excavate canals, and in these 
they pass the winter. 

428. (xiii.) The next family, Pectorales Peduncu- 
lati, derives its name from the peculiar structure of the 
pectoral fins, which have a kind of wrist formed by the 
elongation of the bones to which they are attached. 



470. What other tribes are here described ? 

471. What of the sea- wolf? 



\< 1NTHOPTERYOP THE LOPH1US, &C. 269 

This conformation gives these fishes a very strange ap- 
pearance, and enables them to leap suddenly up in the water 
in pursuit of their prey, and even to leap over the mud. 
In many of them the skeleton is demi-cartilaginous. One 
of the most curious is the lophius, or fishing-frog, of the 
British seas, which is met with chiefly on muddy shores. 
It derives its name in part from its wide gaping mouth, 
and in part from the peculiar manner in which it angles 
for its prey. It has some curious appendages to its head, 
which terminate in long, round, and rather brilliant fila- 
ments, having a resemblance to worms. The animal 
lurks in the mud, and puts these appendages in vibration ; 
they are mistaken for worms by small fishes, which they 
attract, and these are gulped down the capacious swallow 
of the lophius. To such an extent is this voracity carried, 
that the angler (as it is sometimes called) is often an 
article of value for the fish which it has in its stomach, 
although its own flesh is worth but little. There is an 
allied genus, the chironectes, of which a species abounds 
on the north coast of Australia. When the tide ebbs far 
back in the dry season, these frog-fishes are so abundant, 
and capable of taking such vigorous leaps, that those 
who have visited these places have taken them at first 
sight for birds. The fishes of this genus can inflate their 
large stomachs with air, in the manner of the Tetrodons. 

429. (xiv.) The Labrid^:, Wrasse or Rock-fish tribe, 
are easily known by the thickness and fleshiness of their 
lips, whence their name. Those of the genus lahrus are 
known on the British shores by the name of old wives; 
some of them vary considerably in their colour. They 
frequent deep pools among the rocks, hiding themselves 
in sea-weed, and feeding mostly upon Crustacea. This 
family contains a large number of species, chiefly inhabit- 
ing tropical seas, and remarkable for the beauty of their 
colours, but they are usually of small or moderate size ; 
their habits are little known, and they are of but slight 
direct importance to man. Some of them have received the 



472. Describe the thirteenth family and species. 

473. Whai of the variety of Rock-fish? 

23* 



270 ZOOLOGY. 

name of parrot-fishes, on account of the brilliancy of their 
markings and the form of their jaws. 

430. (xv.) The last family of the Acanthopterygii 
consists of the Fistularid^e, or Pipe-mouthed Fishes, at 
once recognised by the very prolonged muzzle. Some 
species have the bodies also long and cylindrical, whilst 
in others it is oval and compressed. They are chiefly 
found in warm latitudes ; but one species, centriscus sco- 
lopax, sea-snipe, sea-trumpet or bellows-fish, is occasion- 
ally found on the Cornish coast, as a straggler from the 
Mediterranean. 

Order II. — Malacopterygii Abdominales. 

431. This order, consisting of soft-spined Fishes which 
have the ventral fins under the abdomen, contains five 
families, all of which are highly interesting to the natu- 
ralist. 

432. (i.) The Cyprinid^:, or Carp tribe, are all fresh- 
water fishes. They have the mouth shallow, the jaws 
feeble, and very often without teeth, but the pharynx is 
strongly toothed. They are among the least carnivorous 
of fishes, feeding chiefly on seeds, the roots of plants, and 
decomposing vegetable matter. The common carp is im- 
ported into England from the warmer parts of Europe ; 
it thrives better in ponds or lakes than in rivers, it feeds 
on insects and worms, as well as on vegetables, and it is 
very tenacious of life, so that it is easily transported from 
place to place. The barbel is an allied species of con- 
siderable size, sometimes growing to the length of ten feet. 
It frequents the sluggish parts of the Thames and its tribu- 
taries, and is said to plough up the mud with its nose, 
which, setting various minute animals adrift in the water, 
attracts the small fishes on which it feeds. The cobitis, 
or loche, is another British species, which is interesting in 
some of its habits. It inhabits the mud of stagnant waters, 
and can subsist a long time after the water has been dried 
up or covered with ice. When the weather is stormy, 
the loches rise to the surface of the water, and keep it in 



474. What of the Pipe-mouthed family ? 

475. Describe ihe species of the first family in the second order. 



MALACOPTERYGII PIKE TRIBE. 271 

a state of agitation by their motion ; and, when cold, they 
bury themselves in the mud. They have been observed 
to swallow atmospheric air at the surface, and to dis- 
charge it at the vent in the form of carbonic acid. On 
account of their lurking habits, however, they are not 
often seen in their natural haunts. The anableps,a genus 
allied to the cobitis, has a remarkable peculiarity of struc- 
ture in the eye, each cornea and iris being divided by 
transverse bands, so as to give the fish the appearance of 
having four eyes. The object of this conformation is un- 
known. The fish inhabits the rivers of Guiana. 

433. (n.) The Esocid^e, or Pike tribe, contains the 
most voracious of the fresh-water fishes, as well as several 
important marine species. They are distinguished by the 
absence of fatty matter in the dorsal fin (which exist in 
the Salmon tribe), and by the position of this opposite to 
the anal fin. The pike is very destructive of the smaller 
fishes in the ponds and rivers in which it exists, and 
sometimes attains a considerable size, weighing between 
thirty and forty pounds. The srar-flsh, or sea-pike, is an 
allied species, frequenting the British shores, and stretch- 
ing into the Arctic regions. Some of this kind have been 
known to attain the length of eight feet, and to bite very 
severely ; hence they may be considered as the sharks of 
northern seas. The mackerel-pike, or saury, is another 
British fish of this family ; it is gregarious in its habits, 
and is followed and preyed upon by porpoises, tunnies, 
and other large Scomberidae. To this family belong the 
most common of the flying-fish, though, as already stated, 
it is not the only one which deserves the title. The 
exoccetiis is at once distinguished from the rest of the 
family by the immense size of its pectoral fins, by the 
impulse of which upon the water it is enabled to rise into 
the air ; but it can scarcely be said to fly, since it is un- 
able to do more than partially sustain itself without again 
dipping into the water, and to direct the movement to 
which the impetus was given at the moment of quitting 
the water. Nevertheless, the common flying-fish can leap 

4 f>. What of the Pike tribe and its peculiarities ? 



272 ZOOLOGY. 

more than two hundred yards in distance, and upwards of 
twenty feet in height. They are not unfrequently found 
upon the decks of large vessels, across which they had 
endeavoured to pass. This power appears to be conferred 
upon them to enable them to escape from the pursuit of 
the Coryphasna ; but, in avoiding one enemy, they put 
themselves in the way of others, for voracious birds watch 
them and seize them as they rise into the air. They fur- 
nish an excellent article of food, and are very abundant in 
the neighbourhood of some tropical islands ; individuals 
have occasionally appeared as stragglers on our own 
coasts. 

434. (in.) The Silurid^e are distinguished from all the 
rest of the order by the want of true scales ; having only 
a nalted skin, or large bony plates. The fishes of the 
genus silurus inhabit the rivers of warm countries : they 
have a strong spine in front of the dorsal fin, which can 
be laid flat on the shoulder, or perpendicularly erected so 
as to become a formidable weapon ; and the ragged 
wounds inflicted by it are reputed (but probably errone- 
ously) to be poisonous. One species, belonging to the 
sub-genus Malapterurus, an inhabitant of the Nile and of 
the rivers of Central Africa, has electric properties, simi- 
lar to those of the torpedo and gymnotus. 

435. (iv.) The fishes of the order Salmonid^e, known 
as salmons and fronts, are very extensively, indeed al- 
most universally, diffused over the globe, some of them 
being confined to fresh water, and others passing a part 
of their lives in the sea, but resorting to rivers to deposil 
their eggs. They are distinguished by the fatty deposi- 
tion in the dorsal fin, from part of which the spines often 
disappear. All of this family are clouded with dusky 
patches when young, as occurs 
in all the species of Cats. 
Many remain permanently spot- 
ted. The flesh of most of them 
is esteemed as food. The sal- The Salmon. 



477. Name the variety of this family. 
47H. Describe (.he third tribe. 




MALAC0PTERYG1I — THE HERRING TRIBE. 273 

mon inhabits the seas of comparatively cold regions, as- 
cending the river for the purpose of spawning, at sea- 
sons varying with the climate. The efforts which they 
make to overcome difficulties in the ascent are very great ; 
they will not only swim against powerful streams, but 
will leap up cascades of considerable elevation, and find 
their way to the brooks and small lakes of lofty mountains. 
They return to the sea after this operation is accomplished, 
and are followed by the young produce from the eggs 
they have deposited. These, in their turn, ascend the 
rivers for the same purpose, and are understood to resort 
to those in which they were produced. The trout appears 
to vary much in size and colour, according to the climate 
and other conditions of its residence, so that it is difficult 
to distinguish species from mere varieties. Besides these 
may be mentioned, as belonging to the same family, the 
smelt, which is sometimes found abundantly, but locally, 
in the estuaries of British rivers ; and the capelin, which 
is employed on the shores of Newfoundland as a bait for 
cod, and is sometimes taken in such quantities as to serve 
as manure for the land. A large species of this family, 
the serrasalmus, inhabiting the American rivers, seems 
possessed of an unusual degree of ferocity, pursuing ducks, 
and even men whilst bathing, and wounding them severely 
with its teeth. Most of the family exhibit great voracity. 
436. (v.) The ClupjEidjE, or Herring tribe, is one of 
the most important families in the whole class, for the 
amount of food it supplies to man. The fishes belonging 
to it resemble the Salmonidae in many characters, but 
differ in having no fatty matter in the dorsal fin. They 
chiefly inhabit the seas of the temperate zone. The 
1i erring, which periodically visits our shores in such im- 
mense shoals, was formerly supposed to migrate from 
Arctic seas ; but this is now ascertained to be a mistake, 
the fish being almost unknown there, and often appearing 
on the southern coast of Britain before the northern. The 
fact is rather that the herring, like the mackerel and many 
other fish, usually lives in the open ocean, and resorts to 

17° What of *h.H Sfllmon nnd Tmut famil\ ? 



274 ZOOLOGY. 

the nearest coast to deposit its spawn. There are many 
well-known species, differing but little from the herring-, 
which frequent separate localities. Thus, the pilchard is 
caught especially on the coast of Cornwall, and other 
shores to the southward of those on which the herring 
most abounds. The sardine is taken on the west coast 
of France and in the Mediterranean, where the herring 
never appears. The sprat, white-bait, shad, and other 
British species, belong to the same family, as does also the 
anchovy, well known for its rich and peculiar flavour, 
which is abundant in the Mediterranean. Other species 
inhabit the American, African, and Indian seas and rivers, 
but they are less abundant than those already mentioned. 

Order III. — Malacopterygii Sub-Brachiati. 

437. The soft-rayed Fishes, which have the ventral 
fins brought forwards beneath, or even in advance of, the 
pectoral, are divided into three families, one of which is 
equally important to man with the last, if not more so. 
This is— 

438. (i.) Gadid^e, the Cod tribe. The fishes of this 
genus are easily known by the softness of all their fins, 
and by having the ventrals inserted under the throat, and 
pointed. The greater number live in cold or temperate 
seas, and furnish a most important article of food, their 
flesh being wholesome, easy of digestion, and agreeable 
to the palate, and their numbers (owing to their extraordi- 
nary reproductive power) extremely abundant. The cod 
is nearly the largest of the family, but is usually surpassed 
by the ling, which is commonly from three to four feet 
long ; both these are especially valuable for their excel- 
lence when salted. The haddock is a smaller species, 
nearly allied to the cod ; for eating in the fresh state, it is 
perhaps the most delicate of the whole family. Many 
other species are useful to man, occurring in large num- 
bers in particular localities. Such are the whiting, the 
coal -fish, the pollock, the haak (of which some species 
frequent high southern latitudes), the burbot (which as- 



iPO. Whal of the TTerrinc tribe and its variety ? 



MALACOPTERYGII THE FLAT-FISH. t>7;> 

eends rivers), the rockling, and many others. Besides 
their use as food, those fish are valuable on account of the 
oil obtained from their large livers, which is very service- 
able in the arts. 

439. (n.) The second family is that of Pleuronectid^:, 
the Flat -fish or Flounder tribe. The form of these fish is 
peculiar, not only for the extreme flattening of the body, 
but for its deficiency in symmetry. The two flat surfaces 
— one of which (in the ordinary position of the fish dur- 
ing life) is above, and the other below — are in reality the 
two sides of the fish, differing in several important re- 
spects. Both the eyes are placed on the upper side ; and 
its colour is usually much deeper than the other. The 
body, from the head backwards, partakes a little of the 
same peculiarity. The two sides of the mouth are not 
equal, and the pectoral fins rarely so. On the other hand, 
the dorsal fin, which runs along one of the lateral edges, 
corresponds with the anal, which occupies the other, and 
with which the ventrals are sometimes united. So that, 
when we look at the fish in its usual position, its body ap- 
pears more symmetrical than it really is. These fishes 
are destitute of air-bladders, and they frequent the bottom 
of the sea, from which they seldom rise far. The colour 
of their upper surface usually corresponds closely with 
that of the ground on which they lie, and thus they 
escape the observation of their enemies, and are un- 
noticed by the small fishes on which they prey. Indivi- 
duals are occasionally found, however, in which both sides 
are alike ; these are called " doubles :" it is usually the 
dark side which is doubled. The fishes of this family 
are found along the shores of almost all countries, and 
are, generally speaking, wholesome and agreeable as food. 
The form and aspect of the different species exhibit little 
variation. The flounder, turbot, brill, plaice, dab, and 
sole, are the chief species of our own coasts ; the halibut 
is a very large species, attaining the length of six or seven 



481. Describe the Cod family. 

482. What different species are named ? 

483. How is the Flat-fish or Flounder tribe described? 



, 



270 



ZOOLOGY. 



feet, and weighing 509 lbs., occasionally taken in the 
British seas; and other species inhabit the Mediterranean. 

440. (m.) The Discoboli, so named from having their 
ventral fins formed into a sucker or disk, are the last 
family of this order.* By this curious provision, the fishes 
belonging to this family have the power of attaching 
themselves to rocks and other hard substances, and thus 
to remain and find their food in situations where every 
other species would be swept away by the current of 
water. Several species are found on the British coasts, 
but they are mostly small ; the most considerable is the 
lump-fish, which is occasionally eaten. The echeneis 
remora, or common sucking-fish, is placed under this 
family, but probably ought to constitute a distinct group, 
since its disk is not formed by the ventral fins, but by a 
series of thin and movable cartilaginous plates fixed to 
the head, by means of which the animal can attach itself 
to any kind of surface. It seems to prefer bodies in 
motion ; and is not unfrequently found adhering to larger 
fish, and to the bottoms of vessels, whose course it was 
once absurdly believed capable of arresting. It is abund- 
ant in the Mediterranean. 

Order IV. — Malacopterygii Apoda. 

441. The fishes in which the ventral fins are wanting 
form but one natural family, the xMur.emd,e, or Eel tribe. 
They are all lengthened in form, have the spine extremely 
flexible, the skin thick and soft, and the scales almost in- 
visible. In most of them the external gill-apertures are 
very small, and open very far back ; by which arrange- 
ment they are enabled to keep the gills moist for a long 
time when out of water, whilst the roundness and flexibi- 
lity of their bodies facilitate their motion upon land. Many 
of them inhabit rivers, whilst others are exclusively ma- 
rine. The eel is the kind most abundant in Britain. It 
is, strictly speaking, a fresh-water fish ; but, when living 
in rivers or other collections of water communicating with 



484. Name the various species. 

4N.">. How is the last family diversified? 



MALACOPTERYGII THE EEL TRIBE. 277 

the sea, it migrates towards the ocean in the autumn. This 
is probably for the purpose of receiving the influence of a 
higher temperature ; as the eels which inhabit closed ponds 
or lakes do not seem to suffer any other inconvenience 
from the deprivation of the power of migration, than in the 
later production of the spawn in the ensuing spring. 
During the winter they bury themselves in the mud ; and 
in the spring, those which have migrated usually return 
up the rivers, together with the young fry produced from 
the spawn, the number of which is enormous. Som ■, 
however, continue to frequent the mouths of the streams, 
seeming to prefer brackish water to fresh. Like trout, 
eels are much affected in appearance and quality by the 
waters they inhabit. They are very voracious, especially 
during the spring and summer months, not only devour- 
ing insects and small fry (on which last account they are 
often excluded from fish-ponds), but also attacking larger 
fish ; and even quitting the water, and travelling over 
moist banks by night in search of frogs, slugs, and other 
prey. Occasionally they eat vegetable substances. By 
means of a long and capacious air-bladder, eels rise to 
various elevations in the water with great ease. 

442. The conger is a marine eel frequenting the 
European seas ; it is one of the largest of the family, being 
from four to six feet long, and as thick as a man's leg. 
The mursena is destitute of pectorals as well as ventrals ; 
one species of it was much esteemed by the ancients, who 
carefully fed it in ponds ; and it is recorded that offending 
slaves were sometimes flung alive into the ponds for their 
supply. The gymnotus, or electric eel, is a native of the 
South American rivers. It attains the length of Rve or 
six feet, and communicates shocks so powerful that men 
and horses have been stunned by them. This power seems 
voluntary, and can be sent in a particular direction, or 
even through the water, the fish in which are killed or 
stunned by its shocks. By giving these, it is greatly ex- 
hausted, and requires rest and nourishment before it can 



486. Describe the Eel family of fishes. 

487. What variety of E^ls is here described ? 

24 



278 



ZOOLOGY. 



renew them. The electric organ extends along the under 
side of the tail, occupying about half its thickness. It 
consists of parallel layers of membrane, joined by numer- 
ous transverse folds, so that a number of canals or cells 
are formed, which are filled with gelatinous matter. This 
apparatus is largely supplied with nerves. Some species 
of this family (which is commonly known under the name 
of anguilliform or eel-like fishes), approach very closely 
to the lower Reptiles in the structure of the air-bladder or 
lung ; and in these the external opening of the gills is 
usually very small. 

Order V. — Lophobranchii. 

443. This order is a very small one, containing but one 
family, of which the genera are few. Their appearance 
is very peculiar. The tufted gills are covered by a large 
operculum ; but this is bound down by membranes on all 
sides, so that there is only one small hole for the water to 
escape. The body is covered, not with small scales, but 
with shields or plates, which often give it an angular form. 
In general they are of small size, and almost without flesh. 
The syngnathus, like the Fistularidae, possesses a long 
tubular snout ; it is peculiar for the protection which it af- 
fords to its young, which resembles that provided in the 
marsupial mammalia. The eggs are conveyed into a sort of 
pouch under the body of the male and are hatched there, 
the young fry afterwards finding their way out. Some of 
these are found in the British seas, as are also the hippo- 
campi, commonly called sea-horses, from the resemblance 
of the upper part of the body (especially when the dead 
specimen bends in drying) to the head and neck of a horse 
in miniature. Their tail is prehensile and they climb or 
li >ld on to the stalks of marine plants by its means. Some 
of this family are almost destitute of fins, having none but 
the dorsal ; in others, as the pegasus, or flying-horses of 
the Indian seas, all the fins are present, and the pectorals 
are very large, whence their name. 



488. Describe the fifth order of fishes. 
1^9. What of the variety ot'Re.i-horspfi ? 



PLECTOGNATHI — NAKED-TOOTHED FISHES. 279 

Order VI. — Plectognathi 

-144. This order, the last of the Osseous Fishes, ap- 
proaches the cartilaginous in many points of its organiza- 
tion; principally, however, in the slow ossification of the 
skeleton, and the imperfect structure of the mouth. They 
derive their name, as already stated, from the union of the 
upper jaw to the skull; so that its motion is obtained, 
not from a distinct joint, but by the mere flexibility of the 
half-ossified cartilages. The gill-lid is concealed under 
the thick skin, with only a small opening; the ribs are 
scarcely developed ; and there are no true ventral fins. 
This order contains two families. 

415. (i.) The Gymnodontes, or naked-toothed fishes, 
are distinguished by having the jaws covered with a sub- 
stance resembling ivory, arranged in small plates (which 
are reproduced as soon as destroyed by use), and really 
representing united teeth. They live on Crustacea and 
sea-weed, and their flesh is not palatable. Some species 
are reputed to be poisonous, at least at particular seasons. 
The most remarkable species of this family are the spinous 
globe-fishes, diodon and letraodon (their technical names 
being derived from the apparent division of their jaws into 
two and four tooth-like pieces respectively), which have 
the power of blowing themselves up like balloons, by 
filling with air a large sac which nearly surrounds the 
abdomen. When thus inflated, they roll over with the 
belly upwards, and iose all power of directing their course ; 
but they are remarkably defended by spines over their 
whole surface, which are erected as they are inflated. 
They are mostly inhabitants of warm seas, but a specimen 
is occasionally drifted to our coasts. The sun-jish has a 
body of somewhat similar form, but incapable of inflation; 
the tail is so short that it looks like the anterior half of a 
fish cut in two in the middle. Some species attain an im- 
mense size. One which is occasionally taken on the British 
coast has been known to weigh 300 lbs., and others are 
much larger. 

490. Describe the sixth order. 

491. What variety in the first family < 







280 



ZOOLOGY. 



446. (n.) The second family, Scleroderma contains 
fishes which are remarkable for their very hard and gra- 
nulated skins. They have a prolonged muzzle, with dis- 
tinct teeth. Their skin is covered with scales in some 
species, and in others very rough, like a file, whence they 
are commonly termed Jile-fishes. They are principally 
inhabitants of warm seas, living near rocks or on the sur- 
face of the water, their brilliant colours sparkling in the 
sunshine like those of the Chaetodons. The Batistes, or 
file-fishes, are generally remarkable for the appendages 
of various kinds attached to the surface of the body. One 
of the most curious species in this respect is the B. pen- 
cilligerus, whose body is covered with little branched 




Balistes Pencilligerus 

stalks resembling aquatic plants. Not improbably, these 
may serve as baits for the animals upon which the fish 
preys, its body lying concealed among the rocks, whilst 
these curious little prolongations are gently agitated by 
the water. The ostracion, or trunk-fish, also belongs to 
this family. It is remarkable for having its head and body 
covered in such a manner with plates of bone united to- 
gether, as to form an inflexible cuirass, having openings 
for the tail, the fins, the mouth, and a small margin of the 



492. Describe the peculiarities of the seconl family. 



CHONDROPTERYGII. 281 

gill-cover. It thus bears no inconsiderable analogy to the 
Chelonia. 



Division II. — Chondropterygii, or Cartilaginous Fishes. 

447. The skeleton of these fishes is not entirely devoid 
of calcareous matter, but this is disposed in separate grains, 
and does not form fibres or plates. Hence the hardest 
portions of the framework remain quite flexible. The 
freedom of motion of the spinal column, which is cha- 
racteristic of fishes in general, is here still further increased, 
in many species at least, by the continuation of the sac 
containing gelatinous matter (which in the osseous fishes 
was simply interposed between each pair of vertebrae) 
through the whole column, the bodies of the vertebrae 
being pierced in the centre so as to form a continuous 
tube ; and in the lowest of this group, which, as formerly 
mentioned, approach most nearly of the whole order to the 
vermiform tribes, the membranous tube filled with gelati- 
nous matter is almost the only rudiment of a spinal column 
existing. This division contains two subordinate groups : 
in the first, the gills are attached by one edge only, hang- 
ing in fringes as in the osseous fishes ; in the second, 
they are so attached to the skin by the second edges, that 
the water cannot escape from their intervals except by 
holes in the surface. Accordingly, instead of having a 
single pair of large apertures, with a valve-like cover, or 
operculum, behind the head, they have as many apertures 
on each side as there are arches of gills. The first 
series contains but one order, and the second the other 
two. 

Order VII. — Chondropterygii Branchiis Liberis. 

448. This order contains only one family, the Sturiones, 
or Sturgeon tribe. In many of its characters, as well as 
in the disposition of its gills, it is intermediate between 



493. What species are named ? 

494. How is the second division of fishes charactered 1 

24* 




2^2 



ZOOLOGY. 












the Osseous Fishes and the Shark tribe, which may be 
regarded as the types of the Cartilaginous division. 
Sturgeons are chiefly river fish, and from their large size, 
vast numbers, and the quantity of food and other important 
products they afford, are extremely valuable toman. The 
common sturgeon of the British shores is about six feet long, 
and its flesh is somewhat like veal. The rivers falling 
into the Black and Caspian Seas, however, produce several 
other species, of which the largest not unfrequently attains 
the length of fifteen feet, one individual being recorded as 
having weighed 3000 lbs. The roe of the sturgeon fur- 
nishes the caviar, so much esteemed in Russia; and its 
air-bladder furnishes isinglass. The chimsera, of which 
a northern species, known as the king of the herrings, often 
accompanies herring shoals, is a genus intermediate be- 
tween the sturgeon and the sharks, having the gills fixed, 
but having only one external gill opening, covered by the 
rudiment of an operculum ; this leads, however, to five in- 
terior passages. 

449. The section of Chondropterygii Branchiis 
Fixis is divided into two orders, the first having teeth, 
and the second having the mouth formed into a sucker. 



Order VIII.— Selachii. 

450. This order only comprises one family, that of 
Sharks and Rays. A great metamorphosis here takes 
place in the condition of the bones of the mouth, those 
which are commonly termed the jaws, in which the teeth 
are fixed, being very different in position and character in 
osseous fishes, and the true jawbones not being here de- 
veloped. This tribe is distinguished from other fishes by 
many peculiarities : in several members of it the young 
are produced alive, the eggs being hatched within the 
body of the parent ; and in others the eggs are enclosed 
in a peculiar horny casing, which has often long tendril- 
like appendages, that coil around and attach them to other 
bodies. This is the case with the eggs of the common 



495. Describe the Sturgeon family. 



SELACHI1 THE SHARKS. 



283 



dog-fish of our coast, vulgarly known as sea-purses The 
Sharks much resemble ordinary fishes in their form, 
having the gill-openings on the sides of the neck, and the 
eyes on the sides of the head, in both of which respects 
the Rays differ from them. The dog-fish of the British 
coasts differs but slightly from the true sharks, and is, in 
its way, equally voracious. 

451. The white shark is the most celebrated species of 
the tribe, being, from its size and voracity, the terror of 




White Shark. 

mariners in the seas it inhabits. It frequents warm lati- 
tudes, but has occasionally visited the British shores. It 
been known to attain a length of thirty feet, and the 
opening of the jaws in the largest individuals is sufficient 
to admit with ease the body of a man. The mouth is 
placed on the under surface of the head, from which cir- 
cumstance the fish cannot bite whilst in the act of swim- 
ming forwards, so that a dexterous person has been known 
to defend himself from its attack. The teeth are triangu- 
lar and lancet-shaped, with acute points and edges, and 
form several rows ; they are not fixed in the jaw itself, 

496. What of the eighth order and iis species ? 



284 



ZOOLOGY. 



but .r a muscular membrane, by which they are erected 
and ^ade to project when in use, lying flat in the inter- 
vals. As the foremost are torn away, they are replaced 
with others, which are brought up from the rows behind. 
So acute and strong are these teeth, that they are used 
by many savage nations as the armature of their weapons. 
The shark, possessed of this powerful apparatus for attack, 
and having a very hard and rough skin for defence, with 
great muscular power, is a match for almost any of the in- 
habitants of the ocean. All the smaller fishes and Cetacea 
fall an easy prey to it, and the only animals that can 
master it are the spermaceti whales. A shark seventeen 
feet long has been found in the stomach of one of these. 
The shark is very tenacious of life, and from young ones 
having been found swimming alive in the stomach of an 
old one, it has been inferred that the latter swallowed 
them for protection ; but it is little probable that they ever 
find their way out again, the voracity of these creatures 
not restraining them from preying on their own species. 
The blue shark, which frequents the Mediterranean, is 
not unfrequently a source of great trouble to the fishermen 
of our coasts, on account of the injury which it does to 
their nets, and the loss of the fish they contain. The fox 
shark, or thresher, is another of the second-rate species 
which occasionally makes its appearance on British coasts; 
it is distinguished by the size of its tail, and the use it 
makes of it as a weapon, both of offence and defence — 
whence its name. The thresher is in constant hostility 
with the smaller Cetacea. The porbeagle is another 
species of this tribe which occasionally shows itself on our 
shores ; it associates into small companies in pursuit of 
prey. Its length is about six feet. 

452. A remarkable genus allied to the Sharks is the 
zygsena, or hammer-headed shark, so named from the 
projection of the head at each side in the form of a double- 
headed hammer, with an eye in the middle of each ex- 



497. Describe the white shark. 

498. What different species are named? 
4l>9. Describe their structure and habit-. 



selachu— i be rays; 285 

tremity. The prist is, or saw-fish, is another interesting 
genus. Its general form and character are like those of 
the sharks, but the snout is extended like the blade of a 
sword, with strong and cutting tooth-like spines on both 
edges. With this formidable weapon the fish, which 
sometimes attains the length of from twelve to fifteen feet, 
will a:tack the largest whales, and inflict dreadful wounds. 
To the shark tribe also belongs the an gel fish of our own 
coasts, which forms the link to the rays in its general 
structure and aspect. The eyes are situated on the back 
or upper surface of the head ; the body is broad and flat- 
tened horizontally, and the pectoral fins widely expanded. 
It commonly grows to the length of seven or eight feet ; 
its appearance much belies its name, being (according to 
our ideas of beauty) one of the ugliest of fishes, but its 
flesh is by no means unpalatable. 

453. The Rays are less numerous than the Sharks, and 
abound rather in temperate than in tropical seas. They 
are characterized by the extreme horizontal flattening of 
the body, in which, however, there is not (as in the Pleuro- 
nectidse) any want of lateral symmetry. The two sides 
are spread out horizontally, and unite with the expanded 
and fleshy pectoral fins to form one continuous surface. 
The eyes are placed on the back or upper surface, whilst 
the mouth, nostrils, and gill-openings, are below. To this 
group belong the rays and skates, thornbacks, and other 
species ; but the most interesting of all is the torpedo, or 
electric ray, sometimes found on the Channel coast of 
England, but more abundantly in the Mediterranean. The 
electric apparatus is of very similar structure with that of 
the gymnotus, and it is disposed in the space between 
the pectorals and the head and gills. The shocks given 
by this fish, though smart, are not so benumbing as those 
of the gymnotus ; their use in its economy is not appa- 
rent, as the animal can obtain its prey without them. The 
flesh of the rays is wholesome, and that of most species 
agreeable as food. The skin of some of them is employed 



500. What of the Rays and their variety ? 



286 zoologv. 

in the arts for polishing, and from that of others shagreen 
is made. 

Order IX. — Cyclostomata. 

454. The third order of the Cartilaginous Fishes, and 
the last of the class, is one which contains comparatively- 
few species, and these exhibiting but a very low degree 
of organization. They take their name from the adapta- 
tion of the mouth to the purposes of suction, by its trans- 
formation into a round fleshy disk, having the oral opening 
in the centre, and the margin supported by a ring composed 
of the cartilaginous jaws united together. The spinal 
column loses its distinct division into vertebrae, the space 
elsewhere occupied by their bodies being traversed from 
end to end by a cylindrical membranous tube filled with 
a mucilaginous fluid ; and this, in the higher species, pre- 
sents cartilaginous rings at intervals, which are the rudi- 
ments of vertebrae ; whilst, in the lower, there is no vestige 
of these bodies, and the whole structure is reduced to the 
level of that of the Annilida. The pectoral as well as the 
ventral fins, are absent ; and the skin is soft and mucous, 
with scarcely a vestige of scales. This order contains but 
a single family. The lampreys are the most allied to 
other fishes in their general organization; they possess 
teeth within the ring, and with these they tear the bodies 
of the animals to which they attach themselves. There 
is a marine species two or three feet long, and other smaller 
ones which inhabit rivers. The rnyxine, or hag, is des- 
titute of eyes, and is altogether of lower organization than 
the lamprey ; but the species that differs most in its gene- 
ral characters from the rest of the class is the arnphhxu.s, 
or lancelot. This is a very small animal, about an inch 
long, sometimes found lurking under stones in pools left 
by the ebbing tide. It is destitute of almost every one of 
the characters which have been mentioned as peculiar to 
vertebrated animals, and, nevertheless, can scarcely be 
classed anywhere else than with this family. 



501 . What of the last order ? 
502 Name the several species. 



ARTICULATED ANIMALS DESCRIPTION. 287 



SUB-KINGDOM— ARTICULATA, 

455. It is the necessary result of any natural system 
of classification, that, in pursuing one type or plan of 
organization through all the forms in which it manifests 
itself, we are led from the lowest and simplest, up to beings 
so complicated and so elevated in the general scale, as to 
be far above the lowest members of the series next to be 
considered. From the Vertebrata we might pass, in de- 
scending the animal scale, either to the Mollusca or the 
Articulata, both of which exhibit some points of approxi- 
mation with them. In both we meet, as in the Vertebrata, 
with very highly organized as well as very simply con- 
structed beings. In both we find animals much superior 
to the lowest Vertebrata ; and in both, also, we find species 
which are in many respects below 7 the highest Radiata. 
It is the necessary consequence of a natural arrangement, 
which aims at grouping together the different forms of 
living beings according to the type or plan on w T hich they 
are constructed, that such should be the case. 

456. Neither of these two sub-kingdoms can be regarded 
as in all respects superior to the other. The high deve- 
lopment of the locomotive power in the Articulata, strik- 
ingly contrasts with its usually slight possession by the 
Mollusca. On the other hand, the digestive and nutritive 
systems in the Mollusca are much more complex, and 
attain a higher organization ; so that the heart, for ex- 
ample, of the Tunicata is as powerful in its action on the 
circulating fluid as that of the highest Articulata. On the 
whole, however, the Articulata should be regarded as 
ranking above the Mollusca in the animal scale, since 
it is in the animal powers that the former have the 
superiority. 

457. The general character of the series has been 
already stated as being the jointed or articulated character 
of the skeleton, or hard portion of the structure, and the 



503. What of the next sub- kingdom ? 

504. Wherein do the Articulata rank, above the Mollusca ? 



!:il 



2 "8 ZOOLOGV. 

enclosure of the whole body in this. Nothing can be 
found in the Mollusca at all approaching in character the 
shell of a lobster, or the horny case of the beetle. It is 
the peculiarity of the skeleton in the Articulata, that it not 
merely encloses the body, but is prolonged over the ap- 
pendages for locomotion where they exist ; and the por- 
tions of it which cover these are also jointed, for the sake 
of conferring upon them the requisite flexibility. This 
structure is more apparent, however, in some cases than 
in others. In the lowest animals of this series, where 
there are no appendages for locomotion, and where all 
movements are effected by the body itself, this is endowed 
with great flexibility, and the whole envelope is so soft 
that the division into segments can scarcely be recognised. 
This is the case, for example, in the leech and earth- 
worm. The articulated character is most apparent in the 
Centipede tribe, where the segments are all of nearly 
equal size, and where each possesses a short pair of legs, 
which are themselves also articulated. But in the highest 
classes of this sub-kingdom, we again lose the appearance 
of the division into segments from an opposite cause — the 
consolidation of several rings into one piece. In proportion 
as the locomotive power is more intrusted to the extremi- 
ties, so does it become unnecessary that the trunk should 
possess much flexibility; and in the same proportion does 
it become necessary that the portion of it, from which arise 
the muscles of those extremities, should be very firmly 
framed. Accordingly, the part of the body behind the 
head, which is called the thorax, and from which ihu> 
legs and wings of Insects, and the principal walking legs 
of Crustacea, have their origin, very commonly appears 
as if composed of one piece, although it is really made up 
of three or more segments, each one of which gives origin 
to a pair of members. 

458. The Articulata are almost invariably of small 
size ; and the bulk of their bodies is made up, not by their 
digestive and nutritive apparatus, but by the muscles 
which move it. It is only in those which approach the 

505. Describe the characteristics of (his series. 



ARTICULATED ANIMALS CLASSIFICATION. 289 

Mullusca in the vegetative nature of their existence, that 
we find any considerable dimensions attained. As the 
Mollusca are an essentially aquatic group, so are the 
Articulata principally adapted to atmospheric respiration ; 
and the most active among them can even quit the surface 
of the ground and mount up into the air. We find their 
respiratory apparatus constructed, therefore, upon an op- 
posite plan. Instead of the blood being sent into external 
prolongations of the surface, the gills, to meet the air con- 
tained in the surrounding fluid, the air is introduced into 
the body to meet the blood, this being distributed on the 
sides of cavities or tubes into which it enters. In Insects, 
these tubes have a very complex and beautiful distribution 
through the body. A structure of this description, which 
may be regarded as characteristic of the Articulata, will 
be noted to exist in certain species of Echinodermata 
(§ 868), which approach most nearly to this series ; and 
it is interesting to find the approximation existing not 
merely in outward form but in internal structure. 

459. The Articulata exhibit a peculiarity in the ner- 
vous system, which often enables the real character of 
doubtful animals to be distinguished. A double cord runs 
along the centre of the lower surface of the animal, stud- 
ded with knots or ganglia at regular intervals, which are 
so many centres from which the nerves pass ofT to the 
different segments. The head also has its ganglia, in 
which the double cord terminates anteriorly. Where the 
members, however, are not uniformly distributed along 
the whole body, but are concentrated to one part, as in 
Insects, Arachnida, and the higher Crustacea, we observe 
a corresponding concentration of the ganglia in that region. 
The degree of this concentration indicates the elevation 
of the animal in the series. 

4b'(). The following classes must be arranged in the 
Articulated series, though in some of them the character- 
istic structure is very indistinct ; — 

401. Annelida, or Worm tribe. In these, the body is 
prolonged, without any distinct appendages for locomotion. 

506. What other peculiari'ies are ciied ? 

25 



290 ZOOLOGY. 

The habitation is usually aquatic, though sometimes ter- 
restrial. The division into segments is not very distinct, 
the entire skin being soft. 

462. Myriapoda, or Centipede tribe. These have also 
a prolonged body ; but it is provided with legs, and the 
articulation of the covering both of the body and legs is 
very distinct. 

4b3. Insects, which are distinguished in their perfect 
state by the possession of one or two pairs of wings : by 
the restriction of the legs, which are never more than six 
in number, to the thorax ; and by the division of the trunk 
into three portions — the head, thorax, and abdomen — 
which are usually very distinct from one another. They 
are also distinguished by their remarkable metamorphosis, 
commencing from a form which resembles that of the 
Annelida. 

464. Arachnida, the Spider and Scorpion tribe, which 
differ from Insects in having the head and thorax united, 
in undergoing no metamorphosis, and in having eight or 
more legs. 

465. Crustacea, which have a hard envelope, princi- 
pally composed of earthy matter, and which are adapted 
for aquatic respiration. Many of them have the form of 
Insects ; but their legs are never less than ten in number. 

466. The foregoing constitute a tolerably regular series, 
into which we must also introduce the Entozoa, which 
seem to exhibit the characters of the Worm tribe in their 
most degraded condition, and the animals composing which 
are parasitic upon or within others ; the Rotifera, or 
Wheel-Animalcule, tribe, of which some approach the 
Polypifera and Polygastrica, whilst others approximate the 
Crustacea ; and the Cirrhopoda, or Barnacle tribe, which 
bear a strong general resemblance to the Mollusca, but 
unquestionably belong to this series. 



507. Describe the Worm tribe. 

508. What of the Centipede family? 

509. How are insects distinguished ? 

510. What of the Spider and Scorpion family? 

511. How are the Crustacea characterized? 

512. What other varieties are named ? 



INSECTS DESCRIPTION. 291 



CLASS VI.— INSECTS. 



407. The class of Insects is perhaps the most interest- 
ing in the whole animal kingdom, both in regard to the 
number, variety, beauty, and complexity of the different 
forms which it contains — the vast assemblages of indivi- 
duals of the same species which not unfrequently make 
their appearance together — and their consequent import- 
ance in the economy of nature. "When we consider 
attentively these little beings." says an eminent and pious 
entomologist, "the multiplicity and diversity of their 
organs, whether of sense or motion, of offence or defence, 
for mastication or suction ; or those constructed with a 
view to their several instincts, and the exercise of those 
functions devolved upon them by the wisdom of their 
Creator; the different kinds also of sculpture, which is 
the distinction of one tribe, and of painting which orna- 
ments another ; the brilliant colours, the metallic lustre, the 
shining gold and silver, with which a liberal and powerful 
hand has invested or bespangled many of them ; the down, 
the hair, the wool, the scales, with which He, who careth 
for the smallest and seemingly most insignificant works 
of his hand, hath clothed and covered them ; when all 
these things strike upon our senses, and become the sub- 
ject of our thoughts and reflection, we find a scene passing 
before us far exceeding any or all of those that we have 
hitherto contemplated in our progress from the lowest 
towards the highest members of the animal kingdom ; 
which, for its extent and the myriads of its mustered 
armies (each corps distinguished, as it were, by its own 
banner and under its proper leaders), infinitely outnumbers 
all the members of the higher classes ; and which stands, 
as it were, between aquatic and terrestrial animals, many 
of its tribes under one form inhabiting the water, and 
under another the earth and the air."* 

* Kirby's Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii. p. 313. 
513. Whai are some of the wonders of the class of Insects ? 



292 ZOOLOGY. 

468. The class of Insects does not, in modern systems 
of classification, include nearly so many different forms as 
Linnaeus arranged under it. It was made by him to com- 
prehend all the higher groups of Articulata which exhibit 
a distinct division of the body into segments, and ar<> 
superior in general organization to the Vermes or Worm 
tribe, under which he placed the remainder. Thus, the 
Crustacea, the Myriapoda, and the Arachnida, were in- 
cluded, with those now known as Insects, under this 
general designation. The appellation is now restricted, 
however, to those Articulata, which, in the adult state, 
have but six legs ; and animals of this character are also 
distinguished by being adapted for breathing air through 
a system of tubes which conveys it over the whole inte- 
rior of their bodies ; by the division of the body into three 
distinct parts, head, thorax, and abdomen ; by the posses- 
sion of one or two pairs of wings; and by undergoing a 
metamorphosis, or change of form, between their exit from 
the egg and their attainment of the adult condition. These 
two last characters, however, are not as constant as the 
former, being absent in some of the subordinate divisions 
of the class. 

469. The true Insects are distinguished from the 
Crustacea by their peculiar apparatus for atmospheric 
respiration ; from the Arachnida by having but six legs 
(eight being the number in that class), and by the division 
of the body into three parts ; and from the Myriapoda by 
the limited number of legs and segments, the latter sel- 
dom exceeding thirteen. In the perfect Insect it is some- 
times difficult to distinguish the division into segments ; 
they may generally be seen, however, on the lower side 
of the body, especially on the abdomen. But in the larva 
or caterpillar state they are never obscure, and their 
number is very constant, being almost always thirteen, 
one forming the head. Of the twelve segments of the 
body, three in the perfect insect form the thorax, or divi- 
sion succeeding the head, whilst the remaining nine consti- 



">l I. How is the class now restricted ? 

515. How are they distinguished from other tribes ? 



METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 203 

tule the abdomen. It is more common for one or two 
segments to be apparently deficient (being consolidated 
with the rest), than for any increased number to be 
present. 

470. The metamorphosis, or complete change of form, 
which may be seen in the greater number of insects dur- 
ing their development, has attracted much attention from 
the earliest ages to the present time. The larva, which 
afterwards changes to a beetle, a butterfly, or wasp, bears 
no resemblance whatever to the perfect or imago form, and 
is in fact allied, in almost every particular of its conforma- 
tion, to a class far beneath. Moreover, it has to go 
through an int; rmediate form — if any thing still more 
remarkable — -that of the pupa or chrysalis; in which 
there is an almost complete cessation of activity, but in 
which preparation is being made for the exit of the per- 
fect insect at its final change. The alteration of the 
entire character of the animal is no less remarkable than 
its change of form. In the larva condition, its whole 
energies seem to be concentrated upon the nutritive func- 
tions ; the voracity is extreme, and the increase in the 
weight of the body is very rapid ; whilst, in the perfect 
insect, the body undergoes little increase of size, but it is 
provided with powers of active movement, and these are 
principally destined to enable it to seek its mate for the 
purpose of propagating its race. 

471. The larva, when it first emerges from the egg, 
bears but a very small proportion to its subsequent bulk. 
According to Lyonnet, the comparative weight of a full- 
grown caterpillar of the goat-moth to that of the young 
one just crept out of the egg, is as 72,000 to 1. During 
its increase, it throws off its skin several times, like the 
Crustacea. The larvae in the different tribes vary extreme- 
ly as to the degree of their development. Some have 
no distinct head or legs, and closely resemble the leech or 
earth-worm in general structure ; of this kind are most of 



516. What of the segments, and their number? 

517. What of the twelve segments, and how divided? 

518. What of metamorphosis, with examples? 

25* 



294 ZOOLOGY. 

the larvae ofVthe Diptera (two-winged flies). Another 
grade is furnished by those larvae which, though still ver- 
miform, are provided with a distinct head, as are those of 
the Hymenoptera (bee and wasp tribe) ; these may repre- 
sent the Naides among the Annelida. A third grade is 
furnished by larvae which has lateral gills, and reside in 
tubes which they construct for themselves ; such is the 
caddis-worm, which may be regarded as analogous to the 
Tubicola. And, lastly, a still higher grade is reached by 
those which not only possess a distinct head, but also the 
rudiments of legs, which serve for walking, such as we 
find in the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera (Butterfly tribe); 
and this grade corresponds in organization with the Aphro- 
dila and others among the higher Annelida. When the 
larva is possessed of any legs, it may be observed that 
they appertain to the three first segments of the body, and 
are the rudiments of the legs of the perfect insect. But 
very frequently the posterior segments are supported by 
legs also ; these, however, are nothing more than fleshy 
tubercles, which are cast off in the metamorphosis, and 
are termed pro-legs, 

472. The foregoing account of the larva applies to 
those tribes only which undergo what is termed a complete 
metamorphosis ; that is, which differ most widely in their 
early condition from the form they are ultimately to as- 
sume. In many groups, such as the Orthoptera (Grass- 
hopper and Locust tribe), the larva issues from the egg in 
a much more advanced condition ; differing but little, in 
fact, from the perfect insect or imago, save in the absence 
of wings, which are gradually developed. These are 
said to undergo an incomplete metamorphosis. There are 
no insects which possess wings when they issue from the 
egg, but there are some which never obtain them, and in 
which no metamorphosis can be said to take place. 

478. After attaining its full growth in the larva condition 
(the bulk of the body in this state often much exceeding 
that of the imago), the insect undergoes a very remark - 



519. Describe the variety indifferent larvae. 

520. What o:her variety is described? 



METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 



OCT 



able change, ceasing to take food, and apparently losing all 
appearance of vitality. In this state it is termed the pupa, 
or chrysalis. Many larvae enclose themselves in a silken 
cocoon, or in some other kind of envelope, before under- 
going this change, and remain in it during the whole 
period of inactivity, which is sometimes many months in 
duration. Others bury themselves in the ground ; and 
others, again, suspend themselves in the air. The pupse 
of different orders of insects vary, like the larvae, both in 
form and in degree of torpor. Some have the whole body 
enclosed in a horny case, without vestige of members, and 
are totally inactive, except when disturbed ; whilst others 
present the general form of the perfect insect, but appear 
as if the body and limbs were separately bandaged, and 
laid in close opposition ; whilst others retain all their limbs 
free, and suffer no diminution in their locomotive powers 
or in their appetite for food ; these, indeed, can scarcely be 
said to pass into the pupa state at all, their condition being 
only indicated by the gradual development of the wings. 
This development is equally taking place beneath the en- 
velope of the pup x that are enclosed and inactive. 

474. The perfect insect, or i?nago, when it emerges 
from its pupa case, ex- 



hibits in all respects the 
form which is charac- 
teristic of the species, 
and, in general, the size 
also ; few growing much 
after they have attained 
this condition, and many 
scarcely eating at all. 
As already mentioned, the 
twelve segments forming 
the body of the larva may 
still be recognised here, 
but very much changed 
in their character. The 
three anterior ones are 



r^tt^^n^y»^=>^»c^^=a 




521. What of the pupa or chrysalis ? 



296 



ZOOLOGY. 



often soldered, as it were, together, forming but one strong 
sheath for that portion of the body from which the wings 
and legs proceed ; and this sheath affords firm attachment 
for the powerful muscles which move these organs. Those 
which constitute the abdomen, however, retain much more 
of their original aspect. The head is now quite distinct 
from the body, and connected with it by a neck which is 
often very narrow. From each of the segments of the 
thorax a pair of legs proceeds; and the second and third 
usually give origin to a pair of wings each. Where, 
however, only one pair of these organs exists, they proceed 
from the second segment. The segments of the abdomen 
never show any vestige of legs. The accompanying dia- 
gram represents the chief parts of the perfect insect. The 
three segments of the thorax are separated from each 
other, to show the organs attached to them. 

475. The especial function of the perfect insect is the 
continuance of the species ; and the wings enable it to 
seek its mate, and to obtain a situation fit for the deposi- 
tion of its eggs, which are always laid in the neighbour- 
hood of whatever substances will supply the larva with 
nourishment, although it most commonly happens that the 
imago does not feed upon them. Many insects, such as 
the silk-worm moth and the ephemera, or May-fly, die 
soon after having fulfilled this object, to which they pro- 
ceed very soon after their last change. It has been well 
observed that there is a beautiful correspondence between 
the metamorphoses of insects and the development of 
flowers. Every species of plant exhibits itself in the 
course of a year, in different states. First are seen the 
succulent stems adorned with the young foliage ; then the 
calyx opens, and permits the tender and lovely blossoms to 
expand. The insects destined to feed upon each plant, 
must be simultaneous in their development. If the but- 
terfly came forth before there were any flowers, she would 
in vain search for the nectar that forms her food ; and if 
the caterpillar were hatched after the leaves had begun 



522. Explain the diagram and its segments. 

523. What is said ot reproduction by insects? 



METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 297 

to wither, it would not exercise its functions in devouring 
them. The eggs of many insects are laid in the autumn, 
and remain unchanged during the winter; their develop- 
ment being excited, like that of plants, by the genial 
warmth of the spring. Others, again, pass the chrysalis 
part of their existence at the same season, and come forth 
as perfect insects early in the ensuing year. 

476*. However extraordinary is the metamorphosis of 
insects, it is by no means unique, as was formerly sup- 
posed. The change of the tadpole into a frog is an exact 
parallel to it, for the tadpole is for the time a fish, re- 
sembling that class in its entire organization ; just as the 
maggot is for the time a worm. Moreover, we shall here- 
after see, in some of the lower classes, a change which is 
fully as remarkable. There is much more difference be- 
tween the gemmule of the polype, for example, and the 
structure into which it will be afterwards developed, than 
there is between the caterpillar and the butterfly. But 
such changes are not confined to the classes in which they 
ordinarily come under our observation. It seems to be a 
general law, applying to all organized beings, plants as 
well as animals, that the germs of new individuals shall at 
first possess a structure much less complex than they are 
ultimately to present, and adapted to different conditions 
of existence. Thus the germ of the fowl, seen as a spot 
upon the transparent membrane of the yolk-bag, does not 
bear the slightest resemblance in form or structure to the 
future bird ; and it is only adapted to live, grow, and de- 
velop itself, whilst supplied by the nourishment previously 
stored up by the parent. In the same manner, the germ 
of the plant contained within the mature seed, often pre- 
sents little that can be recognised as part of the future 
structure ; and nothing of it can be recognised at an early 
period of the formation of the seed. 

477. Now, upon examining the gradual development 
of the germs of the higher animals or plants, into their re- 
spective perfect structures (such as may be easily traced 
in the egg of a bird), it is seen that the several organs 



524. What analogous metamorphoses are cited ? 



298 



ZOOLOGY. 



pass through a series of conditions which bear an evident 
analogy with those which are permanent in the lower 
parts of the scale. Thus the heart of the bird is at first 
constructed upon the same model or type as that of the 
Vermiform tribes, being a long pulsating vessel, without 
division into distinct cavities ; it afterwards assumes a 
more concentrated form, with fleshy walls, as in the Crus- 
tacea. Subsequently, a division into two cavities takes 
place, and the heart resembles that of a fish ; and not only 
does the heart itself correspond in all essential particulars, 
but the distribution of the vessels also. One of these ca- 
vities then subdivides, and thus three are formed, which 
is the character of the heart in the reptile ; and, at the 
same time, the circulating system undergoes correspond- 
ing changes. Finally, the other cavity also subdivides, 
and four are thus produced ; the perfect heart of the warm- 
blooded animal being thus gradually evolved, and the 
changes in the blood-vessels proceeding at an equal rate. 
Such changes take place during the development of all the 
higher animals, not excepting man ; and they affect every 
important organ in the body. 

478. It is not meant to say, however, that the embryo 
of the bird or of the human being ever exhibits the condi- 
tion of a worm, fish, or reptile. The fact is, that each of 
its organs passes through a series of forms corresponding 
in degree of organization to those which are permanent in 
the lower classes, but not adapted to lead their life. For, 
during all this time, the embryo is being supplied with 
nutriment, either directly from the parent, or from the 
store laid up by the parent in the egg ; and there is not 
that degree of harmony amongst its different organs, or 
of adaptation to the supply of its wants, which should 
enable it to live in any other condition. But in the larva 
of the insect, and in the tadpole, there is that harmony. 
The embryo does not receive sufficient nutriment from the 
store within the egg to enable it to arrive at its full de- 
velopment without quitting its envelope ; and it comes 



525. What of the gradual development of organs ? 

526. What phenomenon in the heart is named ? 



METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 299 

forth in a state which, as regards its ultimate condition, is 
imperfect. But it is enabled to support itself in this state 
by the adaptation of its organs to each other, and to the 
conditions of its temporary existence — the insect leading 
the life of a worm, and the frog that of a fish. But if the 
larva of the insect, which is ultimately to subsist upon the 
juices of flowers, had been furnished with a long trunk for 
sucking them, instead of with jaws to gnaw the leaves, it 
could not have existed, since the absence of wings would 
have prevented it obtaining its food. And if the tadpole, 
destitute of legs, had been adapted to breathe air, it could 
not have existed, because it would have had no power of 
moving about upon land in search of its food. 

479. Thus we see that the metamorphosis of insects is 
only a peculiar example of the curious changes which 
occur during the development of all organized beings ; and 
it is much more interesting to regard it as a result of a 
general law, differing from other results in subordinate 
particulars only, than to consider it as something altogether 
destitute of analogy with what is to be observed elsewhere. 
To view it thus with the philosopher, need not prevent us 
from enjoying the poetical views, of w T hich it has been so 
fertile a subject. 

480. Insects, in their perfect state, are distinguished 
beyond all other animals for their power of locomotion, and 
for the perfection of their instinctive actions. In estimating 
their power of locomotion, the space traversed is of course 
compared with the length of the body ; and thus it is seen 
that, rapid as is the flight of many birds, that of most in- 
sects far surpasses it. The senses of insects appear to be 
acute. They have generally large eyes, formed, in fact, 
by the union of a great number of small ones, often several 
thousand ; and although these are fixed, yet from their 
being directed at various angles to each other, a great 
range of vision is obtained. It is believed that insects 
possess the power of hearing, and also of smell, though 
no distinct organs for receiving such impressions have 
been satisfactorily determined. That they have a deli- 

527. What is said of the analogies here cited? 









.-; 



300 



ZOOLOGY. 



cate sense of touch in some part of the body, even where 
the general envelope is firm, cannot be questioned ; and, 
from observations made upon the social insects, such as 
bees and ants, there is reason to believe that they commu- 
nicate with each other by this sense. 

481. The different organs on the head of insects fur- 
nish, by their varieties of conformation, important cha- 
racters in classification. It will, therefore, be necessary 
to describe these in some detail. The most important 
characters — upon which, in fact, the primary subdivision 
of the class is founded — are drawn from the structure of 
the mouth ; in one large group it is furnished with man- 
dibles, or jaws, adapted for biting and bruising ; whilst in 
the other it is provided with a haustellium, or proboscis, 
adapted for suction. Hence the first group is termed 
Mandibulata, and the second Haustellata. These 
organs are, however, but different modifications of the 
same elements. 

482. In the mouth of the Mandibulata, six principal 
pieces may be readily distinguished. Of these, four are 
arranged in two pairs, which work against each other la- 
terally ; a fifth piece is above the upper pair, and a sixth 
below the lower. The two lateral pairs are the jaws ; 
of which the upper pair is distinguished by the name 
of mandibles, and the lower by that of maxillae. The 
mandibles are usually the largest, and are very powerful 
organs ; sometimes they are provided with sharp or 
toothed edges, working against each other like those of a 
pair of scissors ; and sometimes with hooked points, more 
formidable, for the size of the animal, than the teeth of the 
tiger. These are the principal organs by which the food, 
of whatever description, is usually obtained ; but in the 
bees and wasps, of which some species are adapted to ob- 
tain their nourishment by suction, they are the instruments 
by which their curious edifices are built up. In a word, 
as has been well remarked, they supply the place of 
trowels, spades, pick-axes, saws, scissors, and knives, as 
necessity may require. The maxillx, or under pair of 

528. How are insects pre-eminently distinguished ? 






INSECTS CLASSIFICATION. 



301 



jaws, are of similar construction, but usually smaller and 
less powerful. The pieces which are applied, above and 
below, to the spaces left between the 
jaws, are termed lips ; the upper one 
being particularized as the labrum, 
and the lower one as the labium. 

483. Various modifications of these 
parts are seen in the different orders 
of insects, but their existence may 
always be detected under some form 
or other. The most remarkable alter- 
ation in the structure of the mouth, is 
that which we find in the Lepidoptera 
or Butterfly tribe. Instead of cutting 
jaws, we observe a tubular append- 
age or trunk, which is often of con- 
siderable length, and coiled spirally 
beneath the head, but capable of being 
unrolled when its point is required to 
descend into the corolla? of flowers. 
This tube is composed of two long 
narrow filaments, which are in fact 
the maxillae excessively drawn out ; 
these filaments are channelled on the sides at which they 
approach one another ; and by the adhesion of the edges 
of these channels, which lock together by. means of minute 
teeth, a complete tube is formed. In this mouth, there- 
fore, all the parts, except the maxilla?, would seem at first 
sight to be wanting; but they may be detected by a care- 
ful examination, and the rudiments of the upper lip, of the 
mandibles, and of the lower lip, as well as of the palpi 
(organs to be presently described), may be distinctly de- 
monstrated. 




Different parts of the 
mouth of a beetle.* 



* A, upper side ; B, under side ; C, parts separated ; a a, antennae ; 
e e, eyes ; I 1, upper lip ; m m, mandibles ; m x, maxillse ; mp, max- 
illary palpi ; I 2, labium ; I p, labial palpi; c 2, chin or mentum. 



529. How do the mouths of insects vary? 

530. What of the first group ? 

531. Describe the variety of structure, and their use. 

532. What modification in butterflies ? 

26 



302 ZOOLOGY. 

484. In other instances, an entirely different modifica- 
tion of the same parts may be observed. Thus, in the 
Diptera, to which the gnat, horse-fly, and other blood- 
sucking insects belong, we find a sort of proboscis formed 
by a prolongation of the lower lip ; and between its base 
and the upper lip, there are five lancets, with sharp cut- 
ting points or edges, of which the upper pair represents 
the mandibles, the lower ones the maxillae, while the middle 
one is the tongue. 

485. The head of the perfect insect is usually furnished 
with three pairs of jointed appendages, all of which are 
probably instruments of sensation. The first of these are 
termed antennae ; they are affixed to the sides of the head, 
and usually between the eyes and the mouth. The num- 
ber of joints in them, and 
the forms they present, 
vary in the different tribes 
of insects ; as also does 
their size, within very 
wide limits. Sometimes 
they are three or four 
times as long as the whole 
body, and sometimes they 
are scarcely to be per- 
ceived. Sometimes they 

are simple thread-like Or- Variously formed Antennae. 

gans, gradually tapering from the base to the point ; some- 
times they swell out towards the extremity, and often pos- 
sess side branches or appendages of various forms. These 
different characters are extremely useful in classification. 
The palpi, or feelers, are organs which are not dissimilar 
in general character, but are usually of much smaller size, 
consisting of seldom more than six joints ; of these, one 
pair is attached to the maxillae, and the other to the labium, 
and they are called maxillary and labial palpi respec- 
tively. 

4w(j. The uses of these organs are involved in some 



533. What of the proboscis of blood-sucking insects? 
53 t. What appendages of the head are mentioned ? 




INSECTS CLASSIFICATION. *MK\ 

obscurity. There is good reason to believe that all of 
them are organs of touch ; and this sense is probably 
sometimes most acute in the antennae and sometimes in 
the palpi. When the antennae are long, they may take 
cognisance of objects at a distance from the animal ; whilst 
the palpi may be employed in examining its food or other 
bodies in closer proximity to the mouth. There is also 
reason to believe, that the sense of hearing is in some 
way connected with the antennae ; and a curious modifica- 
tion of the joint at the base seems to be particularly ap- 
propriated to this function. It has also been thought that 
the antennae minister to the sense of smell. There is no 
doubt that many insects are guided by this sense in the 
selection of their food, and in the choice of the position 
for their eggs ; but where the olfactory organ is lodged is 
still doubtful. 

487. The wings of insects are the organs most peculiar 
to them ; nothing at all analogous being developed in other 
Articulated animals. They consist of a double layer of 
membrane, prolonged from the skin which covers the body, 
and partaking of its characters. This membrane is sup- 
ported by a framework of harder structure, composed of 
ribs, which go by the name of veins or nerves. These 
terms must not be supposed to imply any analogy of struc- 
ture with the organs they designate in higher animals ; they 
are rather drawn from the analogous parts in the leaves 
of plants. The veins contain air-tubes, which are contin- 
uous with those of the interior of the body, and it is, in 
fact, by the injection of air into these tubes, that they are 
extended in the first instance ; for when the imago 
emerges from its pupa sheath, they are closely folded up, 
and the insect has no power of moving them until they 
have been thus distended. In the young state they also 
contain blood-vessels; and a circulation of blood can be 
distinctly seen in them, during their growth in the pupa 
state, and (in some insects which enlarge after their last 
metamorphosis) during the early part of the perfect con- 



535. Describe their various functions. 

536. Describe the peculiar structure of the wings. 



304 ZOOLOGY. 

dition also. But the vessels soon become drind up, and 
the circulation ceases ; and no further nutrition of the 
wings then takes place — injuries to these organs not being 
repaired. 

488. There is scarcely any organized substance upon 
which insects are not adapted to prey. The growing 
vegetable and the living animal are alike subject to their 
attacks ; their dead bodies supply many tribes with abun- 
dant nutriment ; and even when these are in an advanced 
stage of decay, they supply wholesome food to particular 
species. Thus, although man sustains great damage by 
the injury or destruction of his cultivated plants or trees, 
he receives a still greater benefit by the removal of decom- 
posing substances, whose noxious exhalations would poi- 
son the air, of which the purity is so important to his 
health and comfort. As an instance of the rapidity with 
which they effect this object — a consequence of their in- 
dividual voracity and their speedy multiplication — may be 
mentioned a calculation made by Linnaeus, that three flesh- 
flies and their immediate progeny would devour the car- 
cass of a horse sooner than a lion would do. 

489. In regard to the food of individual tribes of insects, 
it may here be stated generally, that some are purely car- 
nivorous, devouring only prey which they have themselves 
killed. Others eat carrion, and ev» n keep it until its de- 
composition is advanced. Others are herbivorous ; some 
feeding only upon particular species of plants, whilst 
others are not restricted, but feed upon almost any vege- 
table substance. Others, again, are omnivorous, and will 
attack almost any thing that falls in their way. The ex- 
cessive multiplication of insects, which would result from 
the enormous number of their eggs, and from their rapid 
growth, is prevented by the influence of other tribes of 
animals, as well as by the wars of their own tribes against 
each other. The destruction of the larvae of some insects 
by those of others is often enormous, and far exceeds in 
proportion the diminution in their numbers effected by 



537. What of their variety and multiplication ? 

538. What of the variety of their food ? 



INSECTS CLASSIFICATION. 6iJO 

higher tribes. There are no classes of animals formed to 
exist on land, however, of which part do not derive a great 
proportion of their food from insects ; and thus, if man 
does not interfere with the economy of nature, a balance is 
maintained which is rarely disturbed. But if these higher 
tribes be destroyed (as for example, if a rookery be dis- 
persed), insects will then multiply inordinately, and will 
become a pest to the country. 

490. Insects are distributed abundantly over ail the 
portions of the globe yet trodden by man. Even in the 
coldest regions which he has yet explored, they present 
themselves to his notice during the brief summer ; and no 
severity of the winter appears capable of destroying their 
vitality, although it reduces them to a state of complete 
torpidity. It is in tropical regions, however, that the 
largest and most brilliant species are usually found. Dif- 
ferent tribes have peculiar geographical limits ; and the 
globe might be mapped out into several regions, of which 
each should contain many species peculiar to it, and few 
that exist in others. The common house-fly has the most 
extensive range of all. Further, the insects of each re- 
gion have a peculiar character ; so that a practised ento- 
mologist, to whom a small collection from any particular 
country might be shown, would be able to state the locality 
from which they came, even though every one of the spe- 
cies might be new to him. 

491. With these general remarks, we are now prepared 
to consider the principal subdivisions of this important class 
in more detail. These subdivisions are principally formed 
upon the character of the wings ; since it is found that the 
structure of these organs affords a good index of that of 
the body in general. But it cannot be trusted to alone. 
For, whilst certain orders may be included under the 
general designation Apttra or wingless, and another is 
termed Dipt era or two-winged, we find the wingless and 
two-winged insects in all the other orders. 

492. Winged insects may be distributed amongst the eight 



539. What prevents the excessive multiplication of insects ? 

540. What of their distribution and range ? 

2fi* 



ttW 



ZOOLOGY. 



following orders, of which the first four are Mandibulate, 
whilst the rest possess a mouth formed for suction, and 
are termed Haustellate. 

493. (i.) Coleoptera (Beetles). In these the two 
anterior wings are converted into a horny or leathery sub- 
stance, and enclose the posterior when folded. 

494. (n.) Orthoptera (Grasshopper, Cockroach). In 
these the anterior pair of wings is composed of a substance 
more resembling membrane. 

495. (in.) Neuroptera (Dragon-Fly, White-Ant). 
Both pairs of wings are membranous, and the nerves 
form a close network by their interlacement. 

496. (iv). Hymenoptera (Bee, Wasp, Saw-Fly)* 
Both pairs of wings are here also membranous ; but the 
veins have larger areas between them. The tail is pos- 
sessed of a sting. 

497. (v.) Homoptera (Cicada, Lantern-Fly). In 
this order the four wings are of the same consistence, often 
somewhat parchmenty ; and, when folded, they incline at 
an angle like the roof of a house. 

498. (vi.) Heteroptera (Bugs.) The anterior pair 
of wings is horny or leathery, but generally tipped with 
membrane ; both pairs are horizontal or but slightly in- 
clined. 

499. (vn.) Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths). 
These have four membranous wings, covered with mi- 
nute scales. 

500. (vm.) Diptera (Gnat, Fly). These have but 
two wings, and are in many respects parallel to the Hy- 
menoptera. 

501. Besides these, there are some small orders inter- 
mediate between the principal groups. Thus a separate 
order, Trichoptera, has been formed to include the Case- 
worm-Flies, which are intermediate between Lepidoptera 
and Neuroptera. The order Strepsiptera, again, com- 
prehends a small group termed Wasp-Flies, intermediate 
between the Lepidoptera and Diptera. 



541. How are insects divided and sub-divided ? 

542. Describe the eight orders of winged insects. 



INSECTS CLASSIFICATION. M >7 

502. The Aphaniptera, the order to which the flea 
belongs, are entirely apterous or wingless, and parasitic : 
but undergo a metamorphosis, by which they show an 
alliance with the Diptera. 

503. The Wingless Insects, which do not undergo any 
metamorphosis, may be distributed into two classes — 1. 
Parasita [Louse) ; and, 2. Thysanoura (Sugar- Louse, 
Spring-tail). These connect true Insects with the My- 
riapoda. 

504. These orders will now be considered more in 
detail. 

Order I. — Coleoptera. 

505. The order Coleoptera includes the extensive tribes 
of Beetles of all descriptions ; and, in regard to the num- 
ber of species, and the size which some of them attain, it 
may be considered as holding the foremost rank amongst 
insects. There are probably between 40,000 and 50,000 
different kinds existing in collections at the present time ; 
and there is little doubt that, when the species of other 
quarters of the globe shall be as attentively examined as 
those of Europe have been, the number will be doubled 
or even trebled. In this surprising number we find the 
most brilliant colours and singular forms, with a variation 
in size from the most bulky to the most minute of insects. 
Scarcely any branch of Natural History — certainly no de- 
partment of Entomology — has been investigated with the 
same attention as this order has received. This is due 
to the causes already mentioned, and also the solid texture 
of their integuments, which renders their preservation 
easy. 

506. This order comprehends all insects which have 
the anterior pair of wings converted into wing-cases, or 
elytra, and which undergo a complete metamorphosis. 
These wing-cases are of horny consistence, and are opaque, 
or nearly so. When expanded, they are of little or no 
use in flight ; and, when closed, they meet along the back, 
in a straight line, which is called the suture. The second 

543. What of those which are wingless ? 

544. What of the variety of beetles ? 



£08 



ZOOLOGY. 



pair of wings constitute the true organs of flight ; they are 
of large size, and of membranous texture; and, when un- 
employed, they are shut up in several transverse folds, 
and are entirely concealed beneath the elytra. The mouth 
is formed for mastication, and possesses two horny mandi- 
bles. The head is provided with two antennae, of variable 
form, and of which the number of joints is usually eleven ; 
these often differ considerably in the two sexes. The 
eyes are large and protuberant, especially in the carnivo- 
rous species, and in those the slowness of whose habits 
makes them need quick powers of sight for the purpose 
of avoiding their enemies. 

507. The body exhibits a well-marked division into 
thorax and abdomen. The former consists, as usual, of 
three segments ; but the first of these is so largely deve- 
loped at the expense of the rest, as to appear almost to 
constitute the thorax in itself. The abdomen usually con- 
sists of only six or seven segments ; the remainder of the 
nine which properly form this part being consolidated in 
the last. The colour of the body varies according to the 
habits of the species, which may be stated in a general 
way almost with certainty from them alone. Thus, the 
dull-brown and black beetles for the most part frequent the 
earth; those of a green colour are principally found 
among the leaves of plants ; those of a red or bright me- 
tallic hue, which abound in tropical climates, rather fre- 
quent the flowers; others, again, of an aspect like decay- 
ing wood, live principally upon or within timber. 

508. Although the characters already mentioned are 
applicable to by far the greatest number of insects in- 
cluded in this order, nearly all of them are subject to excep- 
tions. Thus, there are some species in which the organs 
of flight are altogether wanting, as in the female of the 
glow-worm ; others which have elytra, but no wings ; 
others, again, in which the elytra adhere together along 
the suture ; others, in which they overlap ; others, in 
which they do not meet ; and others, in which the wings 



545. Describe their structure 

546. What variety of colour is found ? 



ORDER COLEOPTERA BEETLES. 



309 



are longitudinally folded. It is well for the student to be 
aware that such exceptions exist in almost every large 
natural group, however definite its characters may gene- 
rally be. In none of these instances is there an exception 
as to more than one or two of the characters ; the remain- 
der conform to the usual type. The most universal is 
that of the metamorphosis, which, being complete, distin- 
guishes this order from others approaching it in the struc- 
ture of the mouth or in the character of the wings. 

50). The larvsR are worm-like in their aspect ; the 
head is usually horny, and the rest of the body soft. There 
is generally a pair of short jointed legs attached to each 
of the three first segments, representing those of the per- 
fect insect. Those which possess legs are usually active 
in their habits ; but there are others which, leading a re- 




Rose-beetle, in its different shapes. 

tired life, and being born in the midst of their food (such 
as the nut weevil), are destitute of legs. The larvae of 
the carnivorous species have in general the most robust 



547. What exceptions to the rule are cited ? 



310 



ZOOLOGY. 






legs ; and in some of the herbivorous species these are re- 
placed by fleshy prominences, or pro-legs. A pair of 
these generally exists on the last segment of the abdomen. 
Previously to undergoing its change, the larva often forms 
a case for itself of bits of earth or chips of wood, united by 
silken threads or gluey matter. The pupa, or chrysalis, 
is inactive, sometimes even for years, and takes no nou- 
rishment ; but the form of the future beetle is plainly per- 
ceived, the different parts being encased in distinct 
sheaths. 

510. There is much difficulty in forming a simple natu- 
ral classification of this immense tribe, on account of the 
great number of distinct species it includes, and their strong 
general resemblance to one another. Hence it is often 
necessary to resort to characters of great minuteness as the 
groundwork of the system ; and it sometimes happens 
that, by the adoption of such a plan, tribes which are in 
reality closely allied in general structure, are placed in 
different groups, and others are brought together which 
are generally dissimilar. No better system has yet been 
proposed, however, than that of Latreiile, who took as the 
basis of his classification the number of joints in the tami f 
or divisions of the foot. He thus formed the four follow- 
ing sections : — 

611. (i.) Pentamrea (or five-parted), in which the tarsi 
of all the feet are five-jointed, the fourth being of ordinary 
size. 

512. (n.) Heteromera (or differently parted), in which 
the four anterior tarsi are five-jointed, and the two poste- 
rior four-jointed. 

513. (m.) Tetramera (or four-parted), in which all the 
tarsi have four distinct joints. It has lately been observed, 
however, that the fifth joint exists in these, although it is 
very minute, and concealed in one of the others. 

514. (iv.) Trimera (or three-parted), in which only 
three ordinary-sized joints exist in the tarsi — a fourth of 



548. What is peculiar in the larvae? 

549. What is made the basis of classification ? 

550. Into what sections are they divided ? 



CLASSIFICATION Or THE BfcLTLGS. 



311 



small size, however, being- also present. Hence these two 
last sections may be more correctly denominated Pseudo- 
Tetramera and Pseudo-Trimera. 

515. Each of these sections contains several families, 
of which the most important will now be noticed. 

51*5. Section I. Pentemara. — (i.) The first family 
of this section is composed of beetles exclusively carnivo- 
. hunting after and devouring other insects, and car- 
nivorous e\»en in the larva state. These Carnivora are 
characterized by the possession of six palpi ; and by the 
termination of the jaws in a sort of claw or hook. Some 
of them are aquatic; others terrestrial. In many species 
there are no wings under the elytra. The terrestrial car- 
nivora have legs fit only for running; their body is elon- 
i. and their eyes are prominent. Amongst these may 
be mentioned the Cicittdelte, which have usually a brilliant 
or even metallic colour, and frequent dry places which are 
exposed to the sun. They run very quickly, fly off when 
approached, and alight at a short distance. If again dis- 
turbed, they have recourse to the same means of defence. 
The larvae burrow in the earth, and lie in ambush in their 
holes, of which the mouth is exactly stopped by the flat 
plate on the back of the head. They are extremely vora- 
cious ; feeding upon other larvae, of their own kind, if in 
their neighbourhood. A common English species is the 
C. campestris, a beetle of about half an inch in length, and 
of an obscure green colour, with five white dots on each 
of the elytra ; this is most abundant in the spring. From 
their savage propensities this group has received the name 
of tiger-beetlen. 

517. To this division belongs the tribe of Carabidse, 
which is of very great extent, above two thousand species 
having been brought together by a single collector. Their 
bodies are of very firm consistence, whereby they are en- 
abled to creep under ston s, and through fissures, and are 
also prevented from being injured by the insects they attack. 
They prowl about on the surface of the ground, under 
stones, &c, beneath the bark of trees, or in the moss grow- 



551. Wha; of the first family of the first section ? 



312 



ZOOLOGY. 



ing at their roots, in search of their insect prey, which 
principally consists of the herbivorous species. Some of 
them are nocturnal in their habits, feeding upon cockchafers 
and other species of herbivorous beetles that fly abroad by 
night. The habits of the family are not exclusively carni- 
vorous, however ; for some species generally found in 
corn fields are clearly ascertained to feed upon growing 
grain. Many larger species of this tribe are provided with 
a very curious means of defence ; 
being enabled to exhale a very 
fetid odour, and to discharge from 
the abdomen, to a considerable dis- 
tance, an acrid fluid capable of 
producing considerable irritation. 
In the Brachinus this fluid is so 
highly volatile that, immediately 
on coming in contact w^ith the air, 
it becomes a bluish vapour of very 
pungent scent, and makes a sort 
of explosion ; hence the species 
possessed of this power have been 
termed Bombardier Beetles. They 
mostly live in societies. 

518. There is a group of the 
Carabidae which has received the name of Grandipalpi, 
from the size of the palpi, and which is remarkable for the 
brilliant colours of the beetles contained in it. This group 
contains the genus Carabus, of which one of the largest 
and best characterized species is here figured. Nearly 
allied to this is the calosoma, a beetle of about three-fourths 
of an inch long, of a velvet black, with the elytra golden 
green or brilliant copper. Its larva lives in the nests of 
the processionary caterpillars, upon which it feeds, devour- 
ing many in the course of the day ; and other larvae of its 
own species, smaller and younger, attack and devour it 
when inactive in consequence of satiety. These larvae are 
black ; and are sometimes found running upon the ground 




Carabus Clathratus. 



552. What varieties of beetles in this family ? 
5.)3. Name the various species here cited. 



BEETLES THE DYTISCUS, &C. 



313 



or upon trees, especially the oak, the leaves of which are 
frequented by the caterpillars. 

519. The aquatic Carni vora form a tribe far less numer- 
ous than the terrestrial species, and are characterized fcty 
the peculiar modification of the legs, which adapts them 
for swimming ; these members being flattened and fringed 
with bristles, so as to serve as oars. They pass their 
larva and perfect states in water; quitting it, however, in 
order to undergo their metamorphosis into pupae. Th^ 
larvae have the body long and narrow, with a strong head 
armed with powerful mandibles ; and they are of very 
active carnivorous habits. They breathe by organs; adapted 
for aquatic respiration ; but the perfect insect can only 
breathe air, and it is obliged to come to the surface occa- 
sionally for that purpose. The dytiscus, the principal 




Dytiscus Marginalis — Larva and Imago. 

genus of this tribe, is common in fresh and placid waters, 
such as lakes, pools, or ditches. Its larva feeds upon 
other aquatic larvae, such as those of dragon-flies, gnats, 
&c, and moves quickly through the water, striking it by 
its expanded tail. The pupae may be found buried in the 
adjoining banks. The genus Gyrinus includes a smaller 
rice, known in this country by the name of whirligigs, 
which may be often seen in large numbers on the surface 
of quiet waters and even on that of the sea, moving with 
great agility, and describing all kinds of circular or tor- 
tuous paths ; whence their common name. Sometimes 



554. What of the aquatic iribe ? 

27 



314 



ZOOLOGY. 



they remain stationary without the slightest motion ; but 
when approached, they dart beneath the surface, carrying 
down a bubble of air which appears like a silvery ball 
attached to the body. 

520. (n.) The next family is that of Brachelytra, 
which possess but four palpi, and are distinguished, as 
their name imports, by the shortness of the wing-cases. 
The family consists of only one genus, Staphylinus, of 
which one of the largest species is known by the name 
of devil's coach-horse, and is frequently to be seen run- 
ning about garden walks. These insects run and fly with 
equal agility. They are very voracious, but do not feed 
upon living prey, deriving their nutriment from dead and 
decaying animal matters, especially fungi, &c, in which 
they chiefly reside. They are also found in profusion 
under heaps of putrescent plants. They all possess the 
faculty of emitting a powerful odour, which seems to serve 
as a means of defence; and this is, in some instances, of 
peculiarly foetid character. The larvae feed on the same 
substances, and frequent the same situations, as the per- 
fect insect. This group leads, in many respects, towards 
the Earwig tribe, with which the next order commences. 

521. (in.) The family Serricornes is distinguished by 
the toothed or serrated form of the antennae. Like the last, 
it possesses four palpi ; but the elytra completely cover the 
body. Some of this family, having the body of solid consist- 
ence, and oval in form, have the head buried, as it were 
in the thorax, which advances on its two sides nearly as 
far as the mouth. In this way are formed the Buprestis, 
distinguished for the splendour of its colours, many of its 
species having spots of golden hue upon an emerald 
ground, whilst in others azure glitters upon the gold. 
These brilliant species belong to tropical climates, which 
these insects appear especially formed to inhabit, our 
native species flying with the greatest activity in warm 
weather. They live among trees ; and if an eflbrt be 
made to seize them, they counterfeit death, and lall to the 
ground. The beetles belonging tn the allied genus Eluier^ 



555. Describe ihe next family, airi th«r Bfuot»irs. 



BEETLES — THE L\MPYRIS. 315 

art* commonly called skip-jacks ; for, when laid on their 
hacks, being unable to raise themselves on account of the 
shortness of their feet, they spring perpendicularly into 
the air, so as to alight upon their feet. This is effected 
by a violent backward blow of the head, against the sur- 
face on which they are lying. On looking at the under 
surface of the body, a long projection backwards of the 
first segment of the thorax may be observed, which is re- 
ceived into a corresponding hollow of the second segment. 
It is by this that the violent action just mentioned is 
guided. These insects are often found upon flowers, and 
fall to the ground when alarmed, applying the feet to the 
outside of the body, which has hollows for their reception. 
The larva of an English species is known to the farmer 
as the wire-worm, which does much injury by devouring 
the roots of the corn. A species of elater inhabiting the 
West Indies and South America has two brilliantly lumi- 
nous spots upon the front of the thorax ; and a portion of 
its abdomen, which is uncovered during flight, is also 
illuminated. 

522. Another interesting genus of this family is the 
LampyrU, to which belong the glow-worm of this country, 
and some of the fire-flies of warmer regions. The body 
of these insects is very soft, especially the abdomen ; and 
it is from the two or three last segments of this part of the 
body that the phosphorescent light, for which they are so 
remarkable, is emitted. Its intensity is evidently depend- 
ent in a great degree upon the state of the animal : if the 
ins ct be irritated, it is increased ; but if its powers are 
depressed or exhausted, it is lessened. It seems to be 
sometimes withdrawn simply at the will of the animal. 
In the glow-worm (L. noctiluca) it is only the female that 
is luminous ; and she is destitute of wings and elytra, 
which the male possesses. They are only active by 
night ; and as the male is known to be attracted, like 
moths, by lights in houses, it is probable that the phos- 
phorescence of the female is given for the purpose of 
signalizing her position to him. In most of the tropical 

556. What of i lie third family, and their habits? 



31(5 



ZOOLOGY. 






species, both sexes are furnished with wings. In another 
genus of this family, the anobium, a different mode of 
communication between the sexes exists. The insects 
belonging to it burrow in the wood of the interior of houses, 
to which they do much injury, and they signalize their 
presence to each other by beating with their jaws on the 
wood-work on which they are stationed. This sound, 
resembling the quickened ticking of a watch, has received 
the superstitious name of Death-watch. One species is 
peculiarly remarkable for the pertinacity with which it 
feigns death, preferring to be consumed by a slow fire, 
rather than give any sign of life. 

523. (iv.) The next family of Pentamerous Coleoptera 
is that of Clavicornes, characterized by the club-shaped 
form of the extremities of the antennae. These are partly 
terrestrial and partly aquatic ; they feed for the most part 
on animal matter, at least in the larva state. The terres- 
trial ones seem to prefer substances which are in a state 
of decay ; they creep slowly, and are mostly of a dark 
colour, black or bronzed. One of the most interesting 
genera is the necrophorus, or burying beetle, so named 
from its habit of excavating the ground beneath the dead 
bodies of small quadrupeds, such as mice or moles. 
When they have interred the carcass, they deposit their 
eggs in it, and the larvae, when hatched, feed upon the 
flesh. Another genus, Silpha, resides in and feeds upon 
carcasses, and thus diminishes the quantity of obnoxious 
vapour which they emit. They also feed upon small 
snails and caterpillars ; to pursue which, the larvae, as well 
as the perfect insects, climb trees and plants. Some other 
allied genera derive their chief food from decaying vege- 
table matter, but seems to prefer the fungi, which most 
nearly approach animal tissues in chemical constitution. 
The aquatic tribes of this family approach the next in their 
general characters. 

524. (v.) The Palpicornes also possess antennae with 

557. What of the luminous varieties? 

558. How do they make themselves audible ? 

559. What of the habits of the fourth family/ 

560. Describe the burying-beetle I 



BEETLES SCARAB.EI. 317 

a club-like termination ; but these are never longer, and 
usually shorter, than one of the pairs of palpi. Nearly 
all of these are aquatic, and have their legs formed for 
swimming. The most remarkable genus is the hydro- 
philus, of which a large species, H. pieeus, an inch and 
a half long, oval, of a brown black colour, and highly po- 
lished, is common in the ponds and ditches of this country. 
It swims and flies well, but walks badly. The eggs are 
laid in a sort of cocoon, spun by the female, and coated 
with a gummy matter which is impervious to the water 
on which it floats. The larvae, which have a worm-like 
body, with six feet, the head armed with strong mandibles, 
are very voracious, feeding upon tadpoles and the young 
fry in fish-ponds, and upon small fresh-water mollusca. 
When the growth of the larva is terminated, it quits the 
water, and excavates a sort of burrow in which its meta- 
morphosis into the pupa state takes place ; and it remains 
in this even after it has arrived at the perfect condition. 
The perfect insect feeds upon little but decomposing vege- 
table matter ; and the intestinal canal undergoes very 
important changes during the metamorphosis. Other 
species of this family are terrestrial, though many of these 
frequent the margins of water, inhabiting and feeding upon 
cow-dung and other excrementitious matter. 

525. (vi.) The last family of the Pentamerous section, 
the Lamellicornks, is of very great extent, and one of the 
most striking of the whole Beetle tribe, in respect to the 
size of the body, and the variety in the form of the head 
and thorax in the different sexes ; and often, also, in those 
species which, in their perfect state, live upon vegetable 
substances, in respect to the brilliancy of the metallic 
colours with which they are ornamented. But the ma- 
jority of the other species which subsist on decomposing 
vegetable matter, are of a uniform brown or black colour, 
though some are not inferior in brilliancy to the preceding. 
All have wings, and they crawl but slowly along the 
ground. None of them are aquatic. The larvae have 
a long soft body, with a scaly head and strong jaws, 



561. What of the fifh family! 

27* 



ns 



ZOOLOttY. 



and six feet. The back is arched, and not capable of 
being extended in a straight line ; so that these grubs, of 
which that of the common cockchafer affords a ^ood ex- 
ample, walk bat badly on a smooth surface, tumbling over 
at every step. Some species do not change to pupae until 
they have passed three or four years as larvae. They 
form for themselves a sort of oval casing, in their retreats, 
with earth or the debris of the materials they have gnawed, 
of which the particles are united together by a glutinous 
secretion. Their food consists of dung, manure, tan, and 
particularly (in some species) of the roots of vegetables ; 
whence these insects, especially in their larva state, often 
occasion great loss to the cultivator. This family receives 
its name from the peculiar conformation of the antennae, 
which terminate in a mass formed of the three last joints ; 
these are flattened into plates or lamella ; and somtimes 
arranged like a fan or the leaves of a book, sometimes in 
the manner of a comb, and sometimes enclosing each other. 
The family is distributed into two principal sections, the 
Scarabdei and the Lucani. 

520. Of the Scarabdei, one subdivision, including the 
sacred beetle of the Egyptians, feed principally upon the 
excrements of various animals ; 
and they enclose their eggs in 
balls of the same (whence they 
have been called Pilularii), which 
they roll along with their hind 
feet (several often being in com- 
pany), until they reach the hole 
in which they are to be deposited. 
To this group also belongs the 
geotrnpes slercorarius, the com- 
mon dor or shardborne beetle, 
which is one of the commonest 
British insects. A most remark- 
ably-formed species is the dyiias- 




Aieuehus (Scarabaeus) 
^Egyptiorum. 



5(i2. How is the sixth family characterized ? 

563. What of their various habits? 

564. Name the varieties of this family. 



BEETLES SCARA BJEI. 



319 



tes hercules, a native of Brazil, which attains the length of 
five inches, and of which the male possesses an enormous 
horn, projecting from the head, which is opposed by a 
corresponding protuberance from the thorax. To this 
group also belongs the melolontha vulgaris, or common 
cockchafer, which is most destructive to vegetation both in 
its larva and perfect condition ; feeding on the roots in the 
one case, and on the leaves and young shoots in the other. 
The larva lives for three or four years beneath the ground, 
becoming lethargic in winter, but actively voracious in 
summer. Their excessive multiplication is usually pre- 




Dynastes Hercules. 

vented by birds ; but if these be kept away, they increase 
very rapidly, and become a complete pest to the cultiva- 
tor. The perfect insect sometimes makes its appearance 
in such swarms as to devastate an entire forest. The 
goHath beetle may also be mentioned as belonging to the 
same group. This genus is composed of large and splen- 
did species, principally from Africa and the East Indies. 

527. The Lucani, or Stag-Beetles, derive their com- 
mon name from the peculiar form of their mandibles, which 
are very large, curved, and toothed, like stag-horns. The 
L. cerves is one of the largest British insects, the males 
being two inches or more in length. This species flies 
about in the evening in the middle of the summer, 
especially round the oaks, upon the wood of which the 
larva feeds, remaining in that state for several years be- 
fore undergoing its final transformation. Some of the 



565. What different species are here descrihed ? 




320 ZOOLOGY. 

exotic species of this group are very large and splendidly 
coloured. 

528. Section II. Heteromera. — The Coleoptera of the 
second section entirely feed on vege- 
table substances ; they are all terres- 
trial, and most of them frequent dark 
places. In the first family, the Me- 
lasoma, the body is of an ashy brown 
or black colour ; and, for the most 
part, the wings are absent, the elytra ' 
being united along the suture. They 
almost invariably live in the ground, 
beneath stones, or in the sand ; often, 
also, in low and dark parts of build- 
ings, such as cellars, stables, &c. Bla P s Mortisaga. 
This tribe of insects is very tenacious of life ; individuals 
have been known to remain alive for six months without 
food, and stuck on a pin. To this family belong the blaps 
mortisaga, a beetle often found in dark and dirty places 
about houses ; and the tenebrio molitor, of which the 
larva is known under the name of the meal-worm, living in 
corn and flour; and the perfect insect frequents bake-houses, 
corn-mills, &c, where it may often be found in the evening. 

529. The next family, the Taxicornes, requires but lit- 
tle notice, being a small and comparatively unimportant 
one. It differs from the last principally in the presence 
of wings, and is remarkable for the square shape of the 
body ; the antennae are short, and thickened towards their 
extremities. The majority of these beetles are found in 
fungi growing on trees, or beneath the bark ; others live in 
the ground under stones. 

530. The insects of the next family, the Stenelytra, 
have antennae destitute of the thickened tip which charac- 
terizes the last ; they are also more active in their habits. 
Some are found under the bark of old trees ; but many 
frequent the leaves and flowers. 

531. In the family Trachelides, the head is triangular 



566. What of the first family in the second section ? 
.*)fi7. Whai other families are named I 



BEETLES — CANTHAKIS V SICATORIA, MELOE, &C 321 

or heart-shaped, and carried on a kind of neck, which 
separates it from the thorax. The body is soft, the elytra 
being flexible, and sometimes very short. The ma- 
jority live in the perfect state upon different vegetables, 
devouring the leaves, or sucking the honey of the flow- 
ers. Many, when seized, depress the head and contract 
the feet, as if they were dead. Their colours are often 
very brilliant. This is well seen in the ean'haris vesica- 
toria, or blistering-fly, which is of a shining green metal- 
lic hue ; this insect is most abundant in Spain, but ap- 
pears about midsummer in France and is found most 
frequently on the ash and lilac, of which it consumes the 
leaves. Its larva lives in the earth, and feeds upon the 
roots of vegetables. The Meloe is an allied genus, in 
which the wings are wanting. It also possesses blistering 
properties, and is commonly mixed with the cantharides 
in Spain. In several genera of this family the eggs are 
laid, and the larvae produced, in the nest of wild-bees ; 
and the grubs subsist upon the store of nourishment laid 
up by these, which they consequently often starve. 

532. Section III. Tetramera. — All the insects of this 
section are likewise vegetable-feeders. The perfect in- 
sect is found upon the flowers and leaves of plants ; 
the larvae are often produced in their interior ; and, 
when thus hatched in the midst of their food, their 
legs are commonly very imperfect. Very often the true 
legs are almost entirely absent, and their place supplied 
by fleshy tubercles. The first family, that of Rhyxco- 
phor,e, or the Weevil tribe, is distinguished by the pro- 
longation of the anterior part of the head into a kind of 
muzzle. Their larvae have an oblong body, like a soft 
white worm ; many live entirely enclosed in fruits or 
seeds, making their way out only when they have de- 
voured the whole interior, or have arrived at their perfect 
condition. The egg of the common nut weevil, for exam- 
ple, is deposited in the fruit when immature ; and by the 
time the latter has ripened, the egg is hatched. The larva 
grows within it ; and, in autumn, when the nut has fallen 



568 What of the third section and first family i 



32^, 



ZOOLOGY. 



to the ground, it bores a hole with its jaws through the 
shell, and makes its way out through this aperture ; it then 
descends into the ground, an d passes the winter in its 
pupa condition. The number of species in this family is 
very great ; nearly 4000 have been reckoned. Many of 
them are extremely destructive ; especially the calandra 
granariui or corn-weevil, which commits great havoc in 
granaries. To this tribe belongs one of the most splendid 
of all beetles, the curcullo imperialis, well known as the 
diamond beetle, a native of South America, in some parts 
of which it abounds. There are small species belonging 
to our own climate which are scarcely less brilliant when 
magnified in a good light. 

533. The second family of the Tetramerous Coleoptera 
has received the name of Xylophagi (Wood-eaters) on 
account of the peculiar habits of the beetles composing it. 
They usually live in wood, which their larvae pierce in 
every direction : and when abundant in forests, especially 
those of pines and firs, they destroy the trees in a few years, 
and sometimes in enormous numbers. They are des- 
titute of the prolonged muzzle of the last order, and have 
short antenna?, thickened towards the tips. One of the 
most important species is the bostriehm typographies, so 
named from the figure of its burrows, which has at differ- 
ent times ravaged the forests of Germany. It devours the 
soft wood beneath the bark, which is most essential to the 
vegetative processes, both in the larva and perfect states ; 
and thus causes the death of the tree. It was reckoned 
that a million and a half of pines were killed by this spe- 
cies alone in the Hartz Forest in 1783 ; and that as many 
as 80,001) insects were ordinarily engaged in the destruc- 
tion of each tree. 

534. The beetles of the family Longicornes are dis- 
tinguished by the great development of the antennae, 
which are always at least as long as the body, and often 
longer. The larvae mostly reside in the interior of trees 
or under the bark, and are destitute of feet, or have them 



569. Name their peculiarities and species. 

570. What oi she second family in this section ? 



BEETLES KUPODA FAMILY. 



323 



very small. They are furnished with robust mandibles, and 
do much injury to trees, especially those of large size, by 
burrowing deeply into them. They are vegetable-feeders 
in their perfect state also, and do great injury to plants, 
some attacking the leaves, and others the roots. Many of 
them produce a slight creaking sound, by the friction of the 
joint which unites the thorax to the abdomen. Many of 
these are brilliantly coloured, especially the tropical spe- 
cies. Some of them are remarkable for exhaling an 
agreeable musky odour. This is the case with an 
English species, the callichroma moschata, which is 
about an inch long, entirely green or shaded with blue, 




Callichroma Moschata. 

and is very common upon willows. Others are remark- 
able for the curious spines which project from the body, as 
shown in the figure. Some species are destitute of wings. 
535. The insects of the next family, Eupoda, have a 
strong general resemblance to those of the last. They are 
distinguished, however, by the thickening of the hind legs. 
These beetles are usually of small or but moderate size, 
and in general are brightly coloured. They are found, 
both in their larva and perfect states, on plants and shrubs, 
upon the leaves and tender portions of which they feed ; 

571. Describe the different specie?. 

57*2. Whai tfaiety is presented in the diagram \ 



324 ZOOLOGY. 

and as some species are prone to creat multiplication, they 
occasionally do much injury to the farmer and horticultu- 
rist. Some of them especially frequent water-plants. To 
this group belongs the orioceris asparagi, or asparagus 
beetle, which occasionally does great damage to the culti- 
vators of that vegetable. 

536. Nearly allied to these are the beetles of the family 
of Cyclica, so termed from the rounded form of their 
bodies. Like the last, they feed upon vegetables both in 
the larva and perfect condition. The larvae are furnished 
with six feet, and, as well as the pupae, are often coloured. 
These beetles are of small size, often ornamented with 
metallic and brilliant colours ; they are generally slow in 
their motions, timid, and fall to the ground when appre- 
hensive of being seized. Many species leap well. The 
habits of the larvae are often very remarkable. Some 
cover themselves with their own excrement, as a sort of 
protection. Others live in tubes, which they carry about 
with them. Others, again, have no protection ; living in 
the interior of leaves, and feeding on their soft tissue. 
The Cassidorise, or fJelmet-Beetles, are so named from 
the thorax being prolonged forwards, so as to cover the 
head. Some of the foreign species are of the most singu- 
lar forms, and their colours are generally diversified agree- 
ably. Some bear so strong an analogy in general form to 
the Tortoise tribe, that they have received the name of 
Tortoise Beetles. The ChrysomeJUde, or Golden Beetles, 
are often ornamented with colours as brilliant as any of 
the order ; amongst these, blue, green and gold, are pre- 
eminently conspicuous. Their motions are very slow , 
but they hold firmly on the leaves upon which they reside. 
To this group belongs the genus Timarcha, which con- 
tains the largest vegetable-feeding beetles found in this 
country, and in which the wings are absent. These in- 
sects are known by the name of bloody-nose beetles, from 
their habit of emitting a reddish fluid from their mouths 
and joints of the legs when alarmed. The larvae are found 
amidst moss and low herbage ; they are thick, fleshy, and 



573. What of . m families are d«p bed! 



ORDER ORTHOPTERA DEFINITIONS. 



325 



wrinkled, of a greenish black colour; and, when alarmed, 
they roll themselves up, somewhat in the manner of a 
wood-louse. They pass the pupa state beneath the ground. 
The Gnhruculse are of usually much more obscure colours 
than the Chrysomelidae, but are, like them, herbivorous in 
both states. To this group belongs the genus Haltica, of 
which several species make very destructive attacks upon 
turnips, devouring the leaves as soon as they come above 
ground. The larvae seem to devour the soft interior tissue 
of the leaves, and undergo their transformations in that 
situation. Another species has attacked the vines of the 
south of France, and done such great damage to them, 
that in the year 1837 religious processions were instituted 
for the purpose of exorcising the insects. 

537. The Tetramerous Coleoptera contain another fami- 
ly denominated Clavipalpi, so named from the thicken- 
ing of the last joint of the palpi. The species included 
in it are not numerous, and are of small size ; they are 
principally found in fungi growing on the trunks of trees, 
beneath the bark, <fcc. 

538. Section IV. Trimera. — The beetles of this last 
section are mostly of small size ; and they are not very 
common. Their habits are various; a portion feeding 
upon fungi, and the remainder chiefly upon aphides. To 
the latter section belongs the genus Coccinella, of which 
several species are known in this country under the name 
of lady-birds, or lady-cows. They sometimes appear in 
great profusion, and have created much alarm. It is erro- 
neous to suppose, however, that they do any injury to 
vegeiation ; for, on the contrary, they are of great benefit 
to plants by feeding on the aphides which infest them, and 
this they do both in the larva and perfect states. 

Order II. — Orthoptera. 

539. The order Orthoptera comprehends all insects that 
have the mouth armed with jaws fitted for mastication, and 
two pairs of wings ; of which the anterior encase the 

574. Name the different species and their peculiarities. 

575. What of the fourth section and if* characteristics ? 

2* 



326 



ZOOLOGY. 






others, the posterior being membranous, and folding longi- 
tudinally during repose. In many respects they resemble 
the Coleoptera ; and they ire closely connected with that 
order by the Forficulid^e, or Earwig tribe, which par- 
take of the characters of both. But they differ from the 
beetles in the softer covering of their bodies ; in the par- 
tially membranous character of the anterior pair of wings, 
which seem intermediate between the horny elytra of 
bpetles, and the membranous wings of other insects, and 
which do not meet along the back when closed ; and in 
the fan-like manner in which the posterior wings are 
folded up beneath them, which is permitted by the straight 
direction of their veins. They differ also in their meta- 
morphosis ; for, whilst that of the beetles is complete, that 
of the Orthoptera is only partially so ; for the larva and 
pupa closely resemble the perfect insect in form, walking 
and feeding in the same manner, and differing in but little 
else than the absence of the wings and wing-covers, which 
are gradually developed in the latter. 

540. This order comprises numerous well-known insects, 
often of large size and splendid colours ; such as grass- 
hoppers, locusts, walking leaves, as well as cockroaches 
and earwigs. Some of the largest of known insects belong 
to it ; a few species attaining a length of eight or nine 
inches, and an equal expansion of wings. Comparatively 
few of this order are inhabitants of temperate regions ; it 
attains by far its greatest development, both in number, 
size, and colour, between the tropics. All the known Or- 
thoptera are terrestrial, both in their perfect and two pre- 
vious states. Some are purely carnivorous, and others 
are adapted to a mixed diet — the cockroaches, for example, 
being capable of feeding on almost any organized matter, 
whilst the great majority feed upon plants. Hence, from 
their large size, and the quantity which each individual 
car) devour, they are among the most destructive of all 
the insect tribes, when they appear in large numbers. 
This is particularly the case with the locusts in warm 



;")76. How is the next order described I 
577. What various species belong to it ? 



ORTHOPTERA— TUT CTRSORIA. 



>27 



countries, the ravages of which not unfrequently cause 
famine and pestilence, both among; men and beasts. 

541. The Orthoptera are divided into two principal 
families. In the first, that of Cfrsoria, the legs are all 
alike, and adapted for running. They have generally the 
wing-covers and wings resting horizontally on the body. 
Iu the second, the Sanatoria, the thighs of the hind legs 
are much larger than the rest, by which they obtain great 
powers of leaping. In some of these, the wings meet at 
an angle when folded, like the two sides of a roof. The 
males have the power of making a sharp creaking noise, 
which is very loud in some species. 

542. (i.) The Cursoria contain three well-known 
forms — the earwig, cockroach, and mantis. Of these, 
the first approaches more closely than the rest to the 
Coleoptera, for the wing-covers are of firm consistence, 
and they meet when closed, along the whole of the back. 
In some species, too, the wings are folded transversely in- 
stead of longitudinally. They have a peculiar character 
of their own, however, in the forceps with which the pos- 
terior part of the body is provided ; these are used as 
weapons of offence and defence. These insects frequent 
dark and damp situations; they do much injury to the 
flowers and fruits of our gardens, and sometimes multiply 
to such an extent as to destroy them ; they also devour the 
dead bodies of their own species. The popular notion of 
their creeping into the ear is quite unfounded. The 
BUiUse, or Cockroaches, are intermediate between them 
and other Orthoptera. These well-known insects are now 
pretty generally diffused over temperate climates, although 
most of the species are believed to have been originally 
natives of tropical regions. Their wings are small in pro- 
portion to the weight of their bodies ; and in cold climates 
are seldom enough developed to lift them from the ground. 
The females are generally almost destitute of these 
organs. 

543. The Mantidjb are purely carnivorous insects, of 



578. How are they divided and subdivided ? 

579. Describe the several species. 



328 



ZOOLOGY. 



which n.one are natives of this country. They differ 
much from the Blattae in the form of the body, which, in- 
stead of being flattened and oval, is narrow and elongated. 
The first pair of legs is enormously enlarged, and forms 
a very powerful organ of attack. They frequent trees 
and plants ; and the forms and colours of their wings and 
bodies are often so adapted to those of the leaves and twigs 
which surround them, as to give them remarkable power 
of eluding observation : hence, these have been called 
walking-leaves. One species, the mantis religiosa, is 
regarded by the natives of the countries it inhabits with 




Manlis Religiosa. 

superstitious reverence, on account of its occasionally as- 
suming the attitude of prayer. This is, however, the po- 
sition in which it lies in wait for its prey ; the front of the 
thorax being elevated, and the two fore-legs held up to- 
gether like a pair of arms, prepared to seize any animal that 
may fall within their reach. They are extremely voracious 
insects, and if kept together without food, will fight, the 
victor devouring its conquered adversary. Allied to the 
mantis is a very singular genus, the Phasma, of which 
the different species have received the names of walking- 



580. Explain the diagram on this page. 



ORTHOPTERA THE SALTATORIA. 320 

stick, spectre insects, (fee. Their bodies are extremely 
prolonged, and rounded ; and in their colour they much 
resemble dried sticks, previously to the development of the 
wings, which are usually green and leaf-like. The legs are 
all equal, so that they are distinguished from the Mantidae 
on one hand, and from the Saltatoria on the other. But 
they are not able to move rapidly either in the larva or 
perfect state ; and their want of activity is compensated 
by their powers of concealment. They are mostly, if not 
entirely, vegetable feeders. 

544. (n.) The family Saltatoria consists of numerous 
species allied to the well-known crickets, grasshoppers, 
locusts, (fee. Besides the peculiarities already mentioned, 
they are remarkable for the deposition of their eggs in 
the ground, which is generally accomplished by means 
of a long horny ovipositor. The mode in which the 
sound is produced varies in different species. In the 
locusts it is caused by the friction of the posterior 
thighs, like the bow of a violin, against the wing-covers. 
In others, it is occasioned by the friction of two talc-like 
spots, on the inner sides of the wing-covers, against each 
other. 

545. The first division of the Saltatoria, termed Achetidg, 
includes the species known as Crickets. These are es- 
sentially inhabitants of the ground, in which many of them 
burrow ; few have any power of active flight. The greater 
number of them, like the common house-cricket, are noc- 
turnal. One of the most remarkable species is the gryl- 
loptalpa vulgaris, or mole-cricket, which derives its name 
from the analogy it presents, both in structure and habits, 
to the common mole. Its fore-legs are rather short, but 
remarkably strong and broad ; and by means of these, the 
larva (which resembles the perfect insect except in the 
want of wings) burrows under ground, raising a ridge as 
it proceeds, but seldom throwing up hillocks. In its pro- 
gress it does great injury by cutting or detaching the roots 
of plants. It has been stated that it does this only to get 



581. What species are included in the next family ? 

582. What of crickets and their variety ? 

> 28* 



3tt0 ZOOLOGY. 

at the worms and insects among them, but there is no 
doubt that it actually devours the vegetable substances 
which comes in its way. A species of mole-cricket, in- 
habiting the West Indies, is thus extremely injurious to 
the plantations of young sugar-canes. 

546. The next subdivision of the Saltatoria, the Gryh 
lidae, is distinguished by the roof-like position of the wing- 
covers, when they are closed ; they also possess very long 
thread-like antennae. The group contains the Grasshop- 
pers and their allies, which, although bearing a general 
resemblance to locusts, differ from them in the inferior 
robustness of the body, and the delicacy and slenderness 
of the appendages. These insects are entirely herbivorous, 
and are formed to exist upon the plants and trees from 
which they derive their support. They do not assemble 
in swarms, like the locusts, and consequently do not be- 
come such formidable enemies. They will attack and 
devour each other, however, if confined together; and 
one which had accidently jerked off its leg has been 
known to eat it, when enclosed with it in a box. The 
great green grasshopper, found in Britain, is one of our 
largest native insects, being about two inches long, and 
measuring three inches and a half across its wings. Some 
species of large size, inhabiting the south of Europe and 
Africa, are remarkable for the total absence of wings ; 
and some of these are most hideous-looking insects. 

547. The last section consists of the various species 
of migratory locusts forming the tribe Locustidae. These 
are formed for a more active life than the preceding, being 
able to leap much farther, and to sustain a longer flight. 
Their powers of devastation, also, are enormous ; for they 
are produced in vast numbers, and live in societies, so as 
speedily to destroy the vegetation of the spot on which 
they have settled. Thence they take their flight in great 
swarms to adjoining districts ; and so great is the number 
of which these swarms consist, that it is not speaking figu- 
ratively to say that the sky is darkened by their passage. 



583. Describe the structure and habits of Grasshoppers. 

584. What of the Locust tribes ? 



LOCUSTS — ORDER XEUROPTERA. 331 

Even their destruction, which is sometimes the result of 
starvation, and is sometimes effected by tempests, is a 
fresh source of danger, the air being filled for miles with 
the ( ffluvia of their putrefying carcasses. Several species 
of them exist, of which some have occasionally visited 
Britain, and done much damage ; but it is in warmer 
climates that they most abound. 

548. In various parts of Africa and Asia, the inhabit- 
ants use locusts as food, pulling off their wings and legs, 
and frying them in butter or oil, or drying them in a 
mass. Hence it is not necessary to resort to the suppo- 
sition, which some have entertained, that the food of John 
the Baptist was derived from the locust-tree. The species 
which regularly inhabit Britain are small, and are com- 
monly known as grasshoppers. These, however, bear 
more resemblance to locusts than to the large green grass- 
hopper already mentioned. 

Order III. — Neuroptera. 

549. The Neuroptera resemble the Coleoptera and Or- 
thoptera in the structure of the mouth, but differ from them 
in the conformation of the wings. The anterior, as well 
as the posterior pair, are here membranous and transparent. 
In both, the veins form a very beautiful and minute net- 
work, subdividing and uniting again, so as to divide the 
whole surface into a large number of cells, which very 
much exceed in number those of the wings of any other 
tribe of insects. The posterior wings are usually as large 
as the superior, or sometimes even larger; if narrower, 
they are generally longer. The order is one of compara- 
tively small extent, being far inferior in the number of 
species to many others ; but the varieties of structure it 
presents are very considerable, and are often very per- 
plexing to those who seek to form a natural arrangement 
of the different groups. There is also a great dissimilarity 
in their habits and economy ; the majority, however, are 
carnivorous. In their larva state, their abodes are very 



585. What of their being used as food ? 

586. How is the third order described ? 



332 



ZOOLOGY. 



diversified ; some residing in water, some in damp earth, 
and others living exposed upon plants. 

550. The body of the insects of this tribe, which con- 
tains the well-known Dragon-flies, May-flics, Ant-lions, 
and White Ants, or Termites, is generally prolonged, and 
destitute of any very hard integument. They are of in- 
termediate size, none exceeding in dimensions the largest 
dragon-flies of this country, and none exhibiting the mi- 
nuteness of some Hymenoptera and Coleoptera. They 
differ in the character of their metamorphosis, as well as 
in their adult structure ; for in some the metamorphosis is 
complete, the larvae undergoing a marked change of form ; 
in others there is not much difference, except in the ab- 
sence of wings, between the larvae and the perfect insect. 
By these differences, the order may be subdivided into 
two groups, in the first of which the pupa is active, whilst 
in the second it is quiescent, except just before the as- 
sumption of the perfect state. The first of these groups 
may be further divided into those which have terrestrial 
larvae, such as the Termitid^e, and those which are aquatic 
in their preparatory states, such as the Libellulid^e, or 
Dragon-flies, and the Ephemera, or Day-flies. These 
pass the first two stages of their lives in water, respiring 
by means of peculiar organs placed at the sides or extre- 
mity of the abdomen. In other respects, their larvae 
and pupae nearly resemble the perfect insect. They 
creep out of the water to undergo the final metamor- 
phosis. 

551. (i.) The Libellulid,e, are well-known insects ; 
being easily distinguished by the slender form of their 
bodies, their varied colours, their large gauze-like wings, 
and the rapidity of flight with which they pursue other 
insects upon which they feed. They have a large head 
of rounded form, furnished at its sides with two veiy large 
eyes. The eggs are deposited upon aquatic plants, and 
the larvae are produced in water. The head, in the early 
state, is remarkable for the singular form of the piece 



587. What various species are here mimed ? 

588. Na«ne the peculiarities of the first family. 



NEUROPTERA THE EPHKMKRA VULGATA. 



833 



which occupies the lower lip, covering all the under side 
of the head like a mask; and this is furnished with a 
pair of long claws, which serve as pincers for seizing the 
prey. The breathing apparatus of the larva is partly 
situated within the posterior extremity of the intestine; 
and into this cavity the animal draws water, which it 
expels again with a sudden jerk, that drives it forward. 
When arrived at the period of their final change, the pupae 
quit the water, crawl up some adjacent stem, where they 
fix themselves by their claws and throw off their skin. At 
first, however, the wings are soft and moist ; and it is not 
until they are dry that the insect can maintain itself in the 
air by their means. 

552. (n.) The Ephemerid.e derive their name from the 
short duration of their lives in the perfect state. In the 
larva condition they exist for two or three years; in this 




Ephemera Vuigata — Larva, Pupa, and Imago. 

and the pupa state they reside in the water, burrowing in 
the banks. In this condition, the abdomen is furnished 
on each side with a row of plates, which appear to serve 
as gills for respiration, and also to act as paddles. The 
pupa differs from the larva in possessing rudiments of 
wings, which are covered over with scales. At the mo- 
ment of their last change they quit the water, and appear, 
after casting their skin, in a new form ; but, by a singular 



589. What family are exhibited in the diagram ? 



334 



ZOOLOGY. 






exception to what is elsewhere observed, they have to 
undergo another moult before they are fit for propagation. 
They generally appear at sunset in the fine days of sum- 
mer and autumn, along the margin of the streams, &c.,in 
which they have been developed. They take no food after 
their final change ; and as the propagation of the race is 
then their only object, they die almost as soon as it has 
been performed, often in a few hours after their exit from 
the water. Sometimes they come forth in such numbers 
that the ground is covered by their bodies when they die, 
to such a thickness as to make it worth while to cart them 
away as manure. Those which fall into the water are 
greedily seized by fishes ; and fishermen give them the 
name of manna. The swarms of one species with white 
wings have been so abundant as to resemble a fall of 
snow. 

553. (in.) The Termitid^:, or White Ants, are terrestrial, 
active, carnivorous or omnivorous, in all their stages. In 
several points of their structure they approach the Orthop- 
tera ; whilst in their habit of living in societies they resem- 
ble the Hymenoptera. Unlike the social tribes among the 
former, however, the neuters or sexless individuals in these 
communities officiate only as soldiers ; and those which are 
here denominated workers are in reality the larvae, which 
closely resemble the perfect insect, except in the absence 
of wings. These insects commit the most extraordinary 
ravages, the numbers in each colony being almost incalcu- 
lable, and their voracity extreme. Their nests are some- 
times concealed below the surface of the earth, or in the 
interior of trees, timbers, &c. ; and through these they bore 
galleries in such a manner that though the outer surface 
is left untouched, they fall to pieces on the slightest vio- 
lence. Sometimes the nests are elevated to several f et 
above the surface of the ground, and have a pyramid ical 
roof. When arrived at their perfect state, the termites 
quit their habitation, and fly abroad during the evening or 
night in great numbers; they lose their wings before the 



590. What of their habits and structure ? 

591. How is f !ie rhird family descubed? 



NErROPTERA THE EPHEMERA VTLGATA. 335 

morning, and some of them falling to the ground, become 
the prey of birds, reptiles, &c. The females, however, 
are sought by the workers, who imprison them in royal 
chambers 'as they have been termed) in the centre of the 
nest. Their abdomen subsequently attains an enormous 




Queen in the winged state, and when filled with eggs. 

size, from the quantity of eggs it contains ; and these, 
when laid, are carefully tended by the workers and defend- 
ed by the soldiers. Some small species inhabit the south 
of France, living in trees ; but it is only in tropical cli- 
mates that their extraordinary economy excites attention. 
534. (iv.) Of the division of Neuroptera, in which a 
more complete metamorphosis occurs, the family of Myrme- 
leonid^e is one of the most remarkable. Their larvae 
have received from their peculiar habits the name of an/- 
lions ; the perfect insects are large and handsome. None 
of them are natives of this country, though one species is 
common on the continent of Europe ; and it is in tropical 
climates that they attain their greatest size and brilliancy, 
vying with the dragon-flies in the delicate reticulation and 
beautiful colours of their wings. The larvae excavate 
conical pit-falls in fine sand, and bury themselves at the 
bottom, their long mandibles only appearing above the 
surface ; and by these any luckless insect that happens to 



592. What is said of their nests ? 

593. Describe the diagram on this page. 



:336 ZOOLOGY. 

fall down the hole is immediately seized and killed. The 
larva sucks the juices of its victim, and then throws the 
dry carcass by a sudden jerk, out of its hollow. If the in- 
sect chances to escape the murderous jaws of its enemy, 
the latter immediately commences throwing up the sand, 
by which the hole is at the same time made deeper and 
its sides steeper ; and at the same time the escaping insect 
is struck by the shower, and made to roll down into the 
trap. 

555. (v.) The Hemerobiid^e have a considerable resem- 
blance to the last family, but are mostly known by the 
brilliantly golden colour of the eyes. The larvae do not 
construct traps to obtain their prey by stratagem, but 
wander about in search of it like lions. They feed chiefly 
upon Aphides, w T hich they seize with their mandibles; 
and they then, within half a minute, suck the juices of 
their victim. In default of other prey, they will even 
attack and devour one another. Some of these larvae 
cover themselves with the carcasses of their victims, in 
such a manner as to render their own bodies almost invi- 
sible. 

556. The remaining families of this order need not be 
here particularized, as they contain but comparatively few 
species, and these little known. 

Order IV. — Hymenoptera. 

557. In the membranous character of their four wings, 
the insects of this order resemble the Neuroptera ; but they 
cannot well be mistaken for them. The anterior wings 
are usually much larger than the posterior ; the veins or 
nervures are much fewer in number than in the Neurop- 
tera, and do not form a close network by their ramifica- 
tions, as in that order. In some of the minute species the 
wings are almost, or even entirely, destitute of nerves. 
Another character, furnished by the wings, consists in the 
connection of the anterior and posterior during flight, by 



594. What of the family of Ant-lions? 

595. Describe the fifth Family. 

596. What is peculiar in the fourth order? 



ORDER HYMENOPTERA. 337 

means of a series of minute hooks along the front edge 
of the latter, which catch the hinder margin of the 
former, so as to produce one continuous margin on each 
side. 

»~->8. The principal character of this order, however, is 
derived from the structure of the mouth ; for, although 
considered as mandibulate insects, the Hymenoptera are 
much better fitted for imbibing their nourishment by suc- 
tion, than for obtaining it by mastication ; their maxillae 
being much prolonged and channelled, and even uniting 
at their base into a tube, so as to form a kind of proboscis. 
This is well seen in the bee. The Hymenoptera are 
also peculiarly distinguished by a prolongation of the last 
segment of the body in the females, into an organ which 
is in one division of the order a sfing, and in the other 
an ovipositor, or instrument for depositing the eggs, 
usually possessing the power of boring a hollow for their 
reception. 

559. The Hymenoptera are further remarkable for the 
great development of their instinctive faculties, and of their 
locomotive powers. It is in this order that we find the 
most remarkable examples of contrivance and skilful adap- 
tation of means to ends; but this adaptation results, it 
would appear, not from an exercise of intelligence on the 
part of the animals themselves (as in man and the higher 
vertebrata), but from their blindly following out a plan 
laid down for them by the Almighty Designer. This in- 
ference may be deduced from the invariability of the 
operations performed by different individuals among the 
same species, so that a history of the life of one is equally 
applicable to all. The adjustment of instinctive actions 
to each other is nowhere more remarkable than in the 
case of the social insects, which are chiefly restricted 
to this order. The bees, the wasps, the ants, the saw- 
flies, the ichneumons, the gall-flies, have attracted the 
attention of the observer of nature from the earliest 
period. 



597. What is said of their females ? 

598. What of their intelligence, and how shown ? 

29 



338 ZOOLOGY. 

560. The insects of this order undergo a complete me- 
tamorphosis, the larvae being amongst the most imperfect 
of those of any tribe. In the great proportion of the order 
they are destitute of feet, and resemble little worms. 
These are dependent upon the instinctive care of the 
parent for support ; which is either provided for by the 
deposition of the eggs in situations where the future grub 
will be certain of an ample supply of food, or by the active 
exertions of the parents, which convey to the young the 
food they have themselves collected for them, or by similar 
exertions on the part of a race destitute of peculiar sex 
(hence termed neuters), on whom this charge more espe- 
cially devolves. When arrived at their full growth, and 
after undergoing several previous moultings, the larvae are 
transformed into inactive pupae, in which all the limbs of 
the future insect are visible, encased in distinct sheaths, 
and folded on the under surface of the thorax. During 
this part of their existence they take no food. In their 
perfect state, these insects for the most part take but little 
nourishment; and this almost exclusively consists of the 
nectar of flowers. Many of them however, such as the wasps, 
attack and destroy other insects ; but these are often des- 
tined, not for their own support, but for the nourishment 
of the young. This order is of considerable extent, being 
inferior only to the Coleoptera ; and it has been estimated 
as containing one-fourth of the whole insect population. 
It attains its greatest development in warm climates ; 
for of the numerous species inhabiting this country, the 
greater part are of very small size. None of the species, 
however, attain any great dimensions ; very few exceed- 
ing or attaining two inches in length, or three in the ex- 
pansion of the wings. The duration of their lives, from 
the hatching of the egg to the final change, is believed 
never to exceed a year. 

561. This order may be primarily divided into two 
sections, the Terebrantia, in which the female is fur- 
nished with a saw or borer for the deposition of the eggs ; 
and the Aculeata, in which the abdomen of the females 

699. What is said of their metamorphosis? 



HYMENOPTERA THE SAW FLIES. 



330 



(and neuters) is armed with a sting connected with a 
poison reservoir. In the former, the antennae vary con- 
siderably in the number of their joints ; in the latter, there 
are always twelve in the female, and thirteen in the male. 
The Trebrantia may again be divided into thePHYTiPHAGA, 
in which the larvae feed upon vegetable matter; and the 
Entomophaga, in which they (in general) feed parasiti- 
cally upon living insects. The Aculeata are in like man- 
ner divided into the Pr^edones, or predacious tribes, which 
do not collect pollen, and in which the larvae feed upon 
other insects stored up for them, or upon fluids provided by 
the neuters ; and the Mellifera, in which the larvae feed 
upon honey or pollen paste stored up for them. The adult 
forms of all these are distinguished by certain technical 
peculiarities, which it would be tedious here to spe- 
cify. 

562. Section I. Terebrantia. — (i.) The principal fa- 
mily of the Phytophagous Terebrantia is that of Tenthre- 
dixid,e, or Saw-Flies, so named from the saw-like cha- 
racter and action of the ovipositor. With this instrument, 
they make a succession of small holes in the branches or 
other parts of trees, in each of which an egg and a drop 
of frothy fluid are discharged, the latter of which closes the 
hole. The larvae greatly resemble the caterpillars of Le- 
pidoptera, but have either only six feet, or from eighteen 
to twenty-two; they are thus distinguished from cater- 
pillars, which have from ten to sixteen feet. Some of 
them live within the wood in which they have been de- 
posited, and a sort of gall, or swelling, is then formed, by 
a process resembling inflammation, in the surrounding 
parts of the vegetable ; from this the perfect insect eats 
its way out by a circular aperture. In general, however, 
the larvae soon come forth from the aperture in which they 
were deposited ; and feed upon the neighbouring leaves. 
In order to undergo their change, they spin, either on the 
earth, or on the plants upon which they feed, a cocoon, in 
which they remain unchanged for many months, changing 
to pupae only a few days before they become perfect saw-flies 



GOO. How are ihey primarily divided ? 



340 



ZOOLOGY. 



The structure of the mouth in this family approaches more 
to the general type of that of mandibulate insects than in 
any other Hymenoptera. 

563. (n.) The family of Cynipid^e, or Gall-flies, placed 
on account of its structure in Vhe Entomophagous division 
of the Terebrantia, is nearly allied in habits to some 
among the last group. The ovipositor does not seem ca- 
pable of boring a hole by itself, but, being armed with 
teeth at its extremity, it can enlarge slits already existing, 




Pimpla Manifestor engaged in oviposition. 

for the deposition of its eggs. The fluid accumulating in 
the wounded parts forms excrescences or tumours, which 
are commonly termed galls, nut-galls, or gall-apples. 
Their form and solidity vary according to the parts of the 
plants which have been attacked, and the species of the 
insect, of which each is restricted to a particular kind of 
plant. The eggs enclosed in these galls are sometimes 
single, and sometimes very numerous; as many as 1100 
have been obtained from a single oak-gall. They devour 
the interior without stopping its growth ; and remain five 
or six months in that state. They at last make their es- 
cape, in some species before, and in others after, the me- 



601. What of the principal family in the first section? 



HYMENOPTERA THE ICHNEUMONS. 



341 



tamorphosis, by perforating it with a small round hole. 
The hard galls formed on a particular species of oak, and 
by a particular species of Cynips inhabiting the Levant, 
constitute one of the principal ingredients in the manu- 
facture of writing-ink, owing to the quantity they contain 
of a particular acid, which forms a blackish-blue com- 
pound with. iron. An insect of this family deposits its 
eggs in the seeds of the most forward wild figs in the 
Levant ; and the fig cultivators take advantage of this cir- 
cumstance by hanging some of these figs among the later 
ones, so that the insects which escape from the former co- 
vered with pollen may fertilize the flowers contained in 
the latter. 

564. (m.) The family of Ichnetjmonid,e may be re- 
garded as peculiarly characteristic of the Entomophagous 
division. The female deposits her eggs, by means of her 
sharp-pointed ovipositor, only in the bodies of other in- 
sects, chiefly the larvae of caterpillars, on which the young 
may feed when hatched. Some of them have a very long 
ovipositor, which is used to insert the eggs into the bodies 
of caterpillars that live beneath the bark or in the crevices 
of trees ; whilst those which have this instrument short, 
place their eggs in or upon the bodies of caterpillars or 
pupae, to which they can obtain easier access. They do 
not confine themselves to these situations, however, but 
employ for the same purpose the eggs or pupae, still pre- 
ferring the larvae when they can find them. The young 
ichneumons, when hatched as footless grubs, sometimes 
in considerable numbers in the body of one larvae, devour 
only the fatty parts, which are not absolutely necessary to 
life ; but when ready to undergo their metamorphosis, 
they either pierce through the skin and escape, or else kill 
their victim, and perform their changes within its body. 
Of those which escape, some species form a cocoon ; and 
of these several are sometimes united into a kind of cot- 
tony mass, which is attached to the stems of plants. This 

602. What of gall-flies and their products ? 

603. Describe their structure and habits. 

604. Of what use is the product of these insects ? 

605. Describe the peculiarities of the third family. 

29* 



'\42 ZOOLOGY. 

family is extremely numerous in species, above 3000 pro- 
bably existing in Europe alone. 

565. (iv.) The family ChalcidiDjE consists of very 
small insects, usually ornamented with brilliant metallic 
colours, and generally possessing the power of leaping. 
Their habits much resemble those of the Ichneumons ; 
some of the smallest feeding on the eggs of insects which 
are scarcely perceptible from their minuteness, and others 
living in the larvae and pupae of Lepidoptera. Some of 
the species deposit their eggs in the galls occasioned by 
the puncture of the Cynipidae, where their larvae devour 
those of the original inhabitants. 

566. (v.) The Chrysidid^e approach the Aculeata in 
several points of structure, and especially in having the 
ovipositor terminated by a small sting. In the richness of 
their colours they vie with the humming-birds ; and they 
are commonly known as golden-tailed flies. They may 
often be observed walking, in constant agitation, and with 
great agility, upon walls and palings exposed to the sun. 
They deposit their eggs in the nests of solitary mason- 
bees, or other Hymenoptera, their larvae destroying those 
of these insects. 

567. Section II. Aculeata. — The Hymenoptera of this 
division may usually be distinguished from the Terebrantia 
by the mode in which the abdomen is united to the thorax. 
In the Borers, it is in general closely jointed to it — a struc- 
ture which is evidently necessary for providing the ovi- 
positor with the requisite strength ; whilst in the stinging 
Hymenoptera, it is usually connected by means of a pe- 
duncle or footstalk, which is often, as in some of the Wasp 
tribe, of great length, and extremely slender. The pre- 
dacious division of this section contains several families, 
of which the most important only will be noticed in detail. 

568. (vi.) The Crabronid^e, Larrid^e, Bembecid.e, 
Sphkgidje, ScoliiDjE, and Mutillid^e, may all be consi- 
dered under one general description. They form a group 
which may be termed that of Fossores or Diggers, from 



606. What other families are here named ? 

607. What of the structure of the next section ? 



HYMENOPTERA THE ANTS. 



343 



their peculiar habits, and they are commonly known as 
San$l and Wood Wasps. They are solitary in their mode 
of life, and consequently no neuters exist among them. In 
general, the females excavate cells in the ground, or in 
posts, timbers, &c, in which they deposit, together with 
their eggs, various larvae, or perfect insects, and (in some 
species) even spiders, which are destined for the support 
of their progeny when hatched. Occasionally the insects 
composing this store are first stung to death ; but some- 
times they are only slightly stung, and are finally killed by 
the larvae when hatched. In this manner they are ren- 
dered powerless, whilst their bodies are prevented from 
decomposing. The perfect insects are generally very ac- 
tive, and fond of the nectar of flowers, especially those of 
the umbelliferous tribe. They delight in the hottest sun- 
shine, flying and running over sand-banks exposed to the 
mid-day sun, and keeping their wings in constant agitation ; 
some of the tropical species are among the largest of the 
order, and their sting is very severe. The sand-burrowers 
excavate their nests by means of powerful brushes with 
which their legs are furnished ; while the wood-burrowers 
use for the purpose their strong broad mandibles, which 
are provided with tooth-like projections. One species, 
common in sandy districts, has been observed to use its jaws, 
in the first instance, to loosen the material, and then throws 
away the sand, by a peculiar movement of the body, to 
several inches' distance. These families differ in their 
geographical distribution, the Bembecidae being altogether 
confined to warm climates, whilst others are more widely 
diffused. 

569, (vn.) The next family, that of Formicid^e, is com- 
posed of the well-known and singularly interesting tribes 
of Ants ; it must not, however, be confounded with the 
Termitidas, or white ants, belonging to another order. The 
Ants are distinguished from all the Hymenoptera pre- 
viously described, by their habit of residing under- 
ground in numerous societies, and by the existence of 
neuters among them, by which class the labours of the 



h08. What different species are here grouped ? 






341 ZOOLOGY. 

community are chiefly performed. The males and females, 
which constitute but a small proportion of each conjpiu- 
nity, are alone furnished with wings ; the former are the 
smallest. The neuters are somewhat smaller than the 
males, and mostly resemble the females in conformation ; 
but the thorax is much narrower, and contracted in the 
middle, not having to give attachment to wings. The nests 
of Ants are differently constructed in the different species, 
but in all are very curiously and regularly arranged. The 
males and females leave them as soon as they have ac- 
quired their wings, and go forth together into the air. 
The males soon die, without entering their former abode ; 
of the females, some return, and deposit their eggs in the 
original nest, whilst others go off to a distance and become 
the foundresses of new colonies. They lose their wings 
at this period, sometimes stripping them off with their own 
feet, in other instances being deprived of them by the 
neuters. 

570. The neuters not only construct the nest, but most 
carefully tend the young grubs ; supplying them with 
food, moving them on fine days to the outer surface of 
the nest to give them heat, and carrying them back again 
at the approach of night or bad weather, and defending 
them when attacked by enemies. The winged Ants having 
all perished at the commencement of the cold weather, the 
neuters only survive the winter. In the species of this 
climate they remain torpid, and lay up no store of food 
(what have been supposed to be grains being in reality 
the pupae) ; but in tropical species this is otherwise, the 
Ants being active the whole year, and "gathering 
their food in the harvest ;" to these, therefore, the de- 
scription of the sacred writer (Proverbs vi. 6, 7, 8) strictly 
applies. Some of the neuters are larger and rather differ- 
ently formed from the rest, and appear to be the chief de- 
fenders or soldiers of the community. A most remarkable 
instinct is observed in some species, that of making war 
upon colonies of smaller ants, carrying captive the larvae 
and pupae of the neuters, and keeping them in slavery 



M)9. Wbtl of the ■eventfa family ? 



HYMENOPTERA THE ANTS. 345 

when hatched. Ants are well known to be extremely 
foncfcof saccharine matters, and they seem greatly to relish 
the fluid which exudes from the bodies of Aphides, and 
Coccidae. Some species of ants collect Aphides, and keep 
them, as it were, in pastures, wmich they connect with 
their nests by means of galleries excavated along the stems 
and branches of trees ; and they protect the eggs of these 
insects in their own nests, especially in bad seasons. 

571. The foregoing are a few of the chief facts relating 
to the economy of this tribe, on which many volumes have 
been written ; and it may be safely asserted that there is 
none whose habits are calculated to afford more of interest 
and entertainment to those who seek acquaintance with 
them, either by the recorded observations of others or by 
their own. 

572. (viii.) The family of Vespid^e, or Wasps, is dis- 
tinguished from the other Hymenoptera by their wings 
being folded, when at rest, throughout their entire length. 
In general these insects are social ; the communities, how- 
ever, being small. In such cases there are neuters, 
which are not destitute of wings. There are also some 
solitary species (whose habits resemble those of the Fos- 
sores, whilst their general structure is more conformable 
to that of the social wasps), among whom no neuters 
exist. The nests of the solitary species are formed of 
earth ; they are sometimes concealed in holes of walls, 
in the earth, or old wood, and sometimes they are fixed to 
plants. The parents store them with caterpillars or spi- 
ders, which they have previously wounded with their 
stings. These nests contain a succession of cells, in each 
of which a single egg is deposited. 

573. The best known of the social wasps, such as the 
common species of this country, construct their nests with 
bits of wood, bark, &c, which they separate with their 
jaws, and reduce to a pulp ; and this, when expanded 
and dried, forms a paper-like substance. With this are 
built layers of hexagonal cells, one row being joined to the 



610. Describe the variety of ants, and their habits. 

611. What of the Wasp family ? 



346 ZOOLOGY. 

under side of another. The top row is attached, in some 
species, merely to the under side of the branch, or to the 
top of a slight hollow, by which it may be in some degree 
protected; but in others, the whole comb is enveloped in 
a covering formed by several layers of the same paper-like 
substance, with one or more apertures. This nest is be- 
gun in the spring by the females ; and they deposit eggs, 
which produce neuters or workers ; by these the nest is 
enlarged, and the subsequent broods are tended, until the 
beginning of autumn. The young males and females then 
appear ; and all the larvae which do not undergo their 
final change before November are destroyed by the neuters. 
These likewise perish, as do also the males, when the 
cold weather commences ; and a few females alone remain, 
which become the foundresses of new colonies in the fol- 
lowing spring. Wasps feed, in their perfect state, upon 
insects, meat, fruit, &c, and nourish their young with the 
juices of these substances. A Erazilian species stores up 
an abundant provision of honey. 

574. The Hymenoptera belonging to the melliferous 
or honey-collecting division of the Aculeata, are known by 
the peculiar conformation of the hind feet, of which the 
first joint is compressed and extended into the form of a 
square plate, and provided on its inside with brush-like 
tufts ; these organs are employed for the purpose of collect- 
ing and carrying the pollen of flowers, which is employed 
for the nourishment of the young. All of these insects are 
commonly known by the name of Bees ; but the tribe con- 
tains two families ; in one of which, the Andrenid^:, all 
the species are solitary, and are of only two kinds — males 
and females ; whilst in the other, the ApidjE, or true 
Bees, they mostly live in societies, but are chiefly distin- 
guished from the former by certain peculiarities in the 
structure of the mouth. 

575. (ix.) Of the AndrenidjE some species seem nearly 
allied to the solitary Wasps. They burrow in the ground, 
often to considerable depths, in situations exposed to the 



612. Describe their nests and habits. 

613. What of the structure of Been? 



HYMENOPTERA THE ANDRENID^E. 347 

*un. In these burrows they deposit their eggs, placing 
with each a supply of pollen, mixed up into a paste with 
honey, for the nourishment of the future progeny. Each 
of these deposits h covered up, and another then laid over 
it; so that the entire burrow consists, when filled, of a 
series of cells. The hole at the top is closed up with earth, 
chiefly to prevent the attacks of parasites, which, how- 
ever, often succeed in entering the hole. 

576. (x.) Among the Apid^e there are some solitary 
species, which approach the last family ; and there are 
some which are parasitic, depositing their eggs in the nests 
of other bees, upon whose store of food the larvae are sus- 
tained, the parents not having themselves the power of 
collecting pollen. Of those which construct nests for 
themselves, there are many curious varieties, some of 
which go under the names of Mason, Carpenter, and 
Upholsterer Bees, from the material with which they 
work — the first agglutinating bits of sand or gravel, the 
next excavating wood by means of their powerful jaws, 
and the last constructing their cells of portions of leaves. 
The habits of all of these may be studied in detail with 
extreme interest. 

577. Of the social species there are two principal 
groups, the Humble-Bees, or Wild-Bees, and the Hive- 
Bees. The common Humble-Bees of this country live in 
curious underground habitations, in societies usually of 
fifty or sixty, but sometimes of two or three hundred indi- 
viduals ; which are broken up, however, at the approach 
of winter, like those of the wasps. The females are the 
largest of the two sexes ; but besides these, each commu- 
nity contains many neuters, which are intermediate in 
size between the two others. The females which survive 
the winter commence the construction of the nest in the 
ground, often at the depth of one or two feet, early in the 
spring. The cavity is Fined with moss, which the bees 
card with their hind legs. Within this excavation, cells 
are constructed with wax, in which the eggs are laid ; 



614. Describe the solitary variety. 

615. What varieties of bees are here described ? 



3i8 



ZOOLOGY. 



and the larvae, when hatched, are fed with pollen paste 
After undergoing their changes, they issue forth, usually 
in the months of May or June, and assist in the labours of 
the hive. The males and females are chiefly produced, 
however, towards the end of the summer. 




Queen Bee. 



Drone. 




578. It is in the Hive-Bees that the arts of construction 
are exhibited in the most elaborate degree. Their socie- 
ties consist of but one female, commonly termed the queen, 
several hundred males, which are known as drones, and 
about twenty thousand working-bees 
or neuters. It is by the latter that 
all the labours of the hive, the con- 
struction of the combs, the collection 
of food, both honey for the adults 
and pollen for the larvae, and the nou- 
rishment of the grubs, are performed. 
The accompanying figures exhibit the 
relative sizes and aspects of these three orders. The wax 
of which the comb is constructed is secreted by the insects 
themselves in little scales, which work out from between 
the segments of the abdomen. These are taken up and 
kneaded by the jaws, and applied in the proper place. 
The hexagonal form of the cells is that which gives the 
nearest approach to the circular form, with the least ex- 
penditure of material, and at the same time the greates: 
strength. The bottom of each cell on one side abuts 
against three on the other, and is supported by the divi- 



Neuter Bee. 



616. What of the Humble-Bees and their social habits? 

617. Describe the Hive- Bees and their societies. 
filH. What of their cells and their construction ? 



THE HIVE-BEES ORDER HOMOPTERA. 349 

slons between them. It is formed of three plates meeting 
at an angle, and this angle has been ascertained,* by a 
very intricate mathematical calculation, to be precisely 
that which enables the greatest strength to be attained 
with the least material. Some of the cells thus formed 
are employed as store-rooms for honey and pollen, and in 
others the eggs are laid. The eggs from which perfect 
females or queens are to be produced, are laid in cells 
much larger than the rest, and of different form ; but if, 
from any cause, these should not afford a sufficient num- 
ber, the bees have the power of rearing a female or queen 
from a neuter grub, by feeding it with an aliment more 
stimulating than the pollen. The drones are killed at the 
end of summer, but the queen and great part of the workers 
remain ; and when, in the summer, they increase so much 
as to overpeople the hive, colonies are sent forth with 
young queens, in search of another habitation. 

Order V. — Homoptera. 

57i). The insects contained in this order present many 
curious anomalies of structure and habit, and depart more 
widely from the general type, than is the case in almost 
any other division of the class. Hence it is difficult to as- 
sign any general characters which shall include them all. 
It is in the structure of the mouth that there is the greatest 
agreement. This is adapted for suction, the tongue being 
elongated and channelled into a gutter, and being surround- 
ed by delicate lancet-like organs, which pierce the tissues 
of plants. All the insects of this group subsist on vege- 
table juices ; and some of them, from the amount of dam- 
age they commit, are very injurious to the cultivator. Some 

* This question was long ago treated by the celebrated mathema- 
tician Maraldi, who brought the results of his calculation to agree with 
the observed angle within two minutes of a degree. This near ap- 
proximation has been generally considered quite close enough to 
establish the fact : but Lord Brougham has recently investigated the 
subject afresh, and shown that the bees were perfectly right and the 
ma:hematician wrong. 

619. What is said of the angle observed in their cells? 

620. Describe the use of the cells, and the habits of bees. 

30 



853 



ZOOLOGY. 



of the females are furnished with an ovipositor, provided 
with several toothed saws, and with this they make incisions 
into the leaves or stems of plants, into which they intro- 
duce their eggs. The anterior pair of wings is usually 
similar to the posterior in consistence, both being com- 
posed of a firm membrane ; that which chiefly distinguishes 
the Homoptera, however, from the Heteroptera is, that the 
substance of the anterior pair, whatever be its nature, is 
the same throughout ; and that, when folded, they are 
roof-like. 

580. This order may be divided, like the Coleoptera, 
into sections, according to the number of joints in the tarsi. 
These sections are only three in number : in the first, Tri- 
mera, the tarsi are three-jointed ; and in the second, Di- 
mera, they are but two-jointed ; and in the third, Mono- 
mera, they have but one joint. 

581. Section I. Trimera. — The three-jointed division 
of the Homoptera includes three families, of which two, 
the CicadidjE and Fulgoridje, are very interesting. The 
Cicadid^e are the largest of the order ; one species measur- 
ing between six and seven inches in the expanse of its 
wings. Their peculiar characteristic consists in their mu- 
sical powers. By a peculiar apparatus situated beneath 
the abdomen, they are enabled to produce a continued 
sound, nearly monotonous, but of considerable power. In 
some species the sound is so loud and shrill as to be heard 
at the distance of a mile. The song of the cicada was a 
favourite theme in the verse of the Grecian poets ; and one 
of them thus notices the fact of the males alone being pos- 
sessed of vocal powers — 

11 Happy i he cicada lives, 
Since they all have voiceless wives."' 

582. The female cicada deposits several hundred eggs 
in excavations which she makes in dried branches. The 
larvae have six feel, by means of which they speedily de- 
scend into the earth, where they increase in size and are 



621. How is the next order described ? 

622. How are they divided and sub-divided ? 
6'23. What is peculiar in ihe largest species? 



HOMOPTERA THE LANTERN-FLY. 351 

converted into pupae, which are active, and differ but little 
from the larvae, except in having the rudimentary wings 
visible at the sides of the body. During the winter, they 
burrow to the depth of two or three feet into the earth, and 
derive their subsistence from the roots of plants. In this 
pupa state they were eaten by the ancients. This family 
is almost entirely confined to tropical regions, where alone 
the largest species exist ; and it is most numerous in Ame- 
rica. Only one small species inhabits this country. 

5S3. The Fulgoridje are destitute of the power of pro- 
ducing sound, but are distinguished by a curious prolon- 
gation of the forehead, which sometimes equals the rest of 
the body in size. The shape of this projection differs ex- 
tremely in the various species, which are very numerous. 
It is in it that the luminous property of the laniern-Jly is 
said to exist ; but the luminosity of this insect, of which 
one species is a native of Brazil and Guiana, whilst another 
inhabits China, is doubted by many naturalists. If it real- 




Fulgora Laternaria. 

ly exists, it probably only shows itself at particular seasons. 
Some species of this family produce a considerable amount 
of a white waxy secretion, which is collected by the 
Chinese, who make from it a fine white wax, which is 
greatly esteemed in the East Indies. Another species is 
sometimes extremely injurious in the West Indian islands, 
from its attacking the sugar-canes in vast numbers, and 
destroying their vitality by devouring the leaves and 
young shoots. 

584. The family of CercopidjE, also belonging to this 



624. How are the sexes dissimilar ? 

625. What of the other variety ? 



352 ZOOLOGY. 

section, consists of insects of small size, but which are 
remarkable for the grotesqueness of the forms which 
many of them assume. Some inhabit this country, and 
are known by the names of cuckoo-spits and frog-hoppers ; 
but the most singular species are confined to the tropics. 
The curious appendages represented in the accompanying 
figures of a Brazilian species, result from an extraordinary 







Bocydium Globulare. Bocydium Cruciatutn. 



development of the first segment of the thorax. The 
insects of this family are often beautifully varied in their 
colours ; they are constantly found amongst plants and 
on trees, upon the juices of which they subsist in all their 
stages. Of the best known species of this country, the larva 
and pupa invest themselves with a frothy secretion, whence 
the vulgar name is derived. Some of this tribe are em- 
ployed by certain species of ants for the same purpose as 
the Aphides, having the power of supplying them with a 
saccharine fluid. 

585. Section II. Dimera. — Of the Dimerous Homop- 
tera, the most remarkable family is that of Aphid*:, com- 
monly known as Plant-lice, which is extremely obnoxious 
on account of the injuries committed by its members 
against almost every kind of vegetable. The Aphides 
live in great numbers upon the surface of the plant, and 
suck the juices, by means of their proboscis, from the young 
shoots, leaves, stems, and even roots. They thus greatly 
weaken its vigour, and often distort young shoots and 
I aves ; some species cause little gall-like excrescences by 
the irritation they produce. From two horn-like processes 

626. What of the variety in the next family ? 

627. Describe the diagrams. 



H0M0PTERA THE COCCID.E. 353 

at the posterior part of the body, a saccharine secretion 
exudes, of which ants are very fond ; and it is either this 
fluid dropped on the adjacent leaves, or the extravasated 
sap flowing from the wounds made by the insects, which 
is known under the name of honey-dew. In many of the 
species of this family, a large proportion of the individuals 
never acquire wings ; in which case the pupa is not to be 
distinguished from the mature larva or imago states ; 
whilst at certain parts of the year, other individuals of the 
same species, and of both sexes, acquire wings. The 
wingless Aphides, which may be seen in the spring and 
early summer, are all females, capable of producing fertile 
eggs ; and from these are reared the winged males and 
females which are seen later in the season. Their ra- 
pidity of production is enormous ; nine generations having 
been obtained within three months. The young are 
sometimes produced alive, whilst in other cases (accord- 
ing to the season and other circumstances) eggs are de- 
posited. Many of the blights, so injurious to the gar- 
dener and the agriculturist, consist really of Aphides, 
although, from the minuteness of the insects themselves, 
they often escape observation. 

586. Section III. Monomera. — The third section con- 
tains but one family, that of Coccid.e, sometimes called 
Scale Insects. These, although ordinarily of very small 
size, are amongst the most injurious to vegetation of any 
tribe. Their powers of propagation are excessive ; and 
when they once gain possession of a plant or young tree, 
its death is almost certain, the minute size of the larva 
rendering it impossible to exterminate them. They find 
their way into hot-houses, and are even more destructive 
to the exotics they infest than to out-door vegetati'on. 
This is perhaps because they are not then kept in check 
by their natural enemies, such as exist in the regions of 
which they are natives. They furnish, however, some 
very important products. The bodies of many species 
are very deeply coloured through their whole substance, and 
yieid dyes of great value, the richness of which seems to de- 



628. What is peculiar in the next section? 

;30* 






^54 ZOOLOGY. 

pend upon the nature of the plant on which they feed. The 
species employed by the ancients was a native of the Le- 
vant ; but that which furnishes the cochineal so highly 
valued at the present time, was originally confined to 
Mexico, where it feeds on the cacti ; it has, however, been 
introduced, along with its proper food, into Spain and 
Algiers, and also into the hot-houses of this country. 
About 800,000 lbs. weight of cochineal are annually 
brought to Europe, each pound of which contains about 
70,000 insects. The lac of the East Indies, which is ex 
tensively used in the composition of varnishes, the making of 
sealing-wax, &c, is the product of another species of Coccus 
5&7. The transformations of these insects are among 
the most curious which we anywhere encounter. In 
their early stages, both sexes are much alike, and are 
possessed of some degree of activity, having much the ap- 
pearance of minute red tortoises, and feeding by means 
of the sharp weapons with which their mouths are fur- 
nished, and which enable them to puncture the young 
shoots on which they crawl. After a time, however, this 
small amount of activity ceases ; the males no longer in- 
crease in size, and if one of them be opened, the larva 
skin will be found to contain a small and elegant chrysalis ; 
but the females continue to grow until they are many 
times larger than the other sex — the margins of the body 
are as it were glued down to the plant — and the abdomen 
being distended by a great number of eggs, until scarcely 
any thing but the upperand under skins appear to remain. 
The male coccus is of very elegant form, but his life is 
short, being unable to take food in the perfect state. The 
female seems among the least organized of insects, having 
neither legs nor antennae, and presenting to the sight no- 
thing but an inert, scale-like mass. The eggs are deposited 
beneath the body of the female, who then dies; they are 
covered with both the upper and under folds of her skin, 
which protect them until they are hatched, and then the 
larvae make their way out from beneath the envelope, to 



629. Describe the insects of the third section. 
tiJO. What valuable dye is furnished by them? 



ORDER HETEROPTERA. 355 

go through a like succession of changes. This is one of 
the very rare cases in which a living being appears to 
lose in advancing life that which seems to be the perfec- 
tion of its structure. It would appear as if, in this in- 
stance, the whole force were concentrated in the function 
of reproduction, of the amazing power of which some idea 
may be formed by the enormous and undiminishing sup- 
ply just stated as being drawn from one species alone. 
Order VI. — Heteroptera. 
588. These insects bear a close general resemblance to 
those of the last order; as in them, the structure of the 
mouth, which is wholly adapted for suction, indicates that 
their nourishment consists solely of the juices of plants 
or animals ; but they are at once known from them by 
the character of the anterior pair of wings, which are 
coriaceous at the base, and membranous towards their 
point, and which fold nearly horizontally, partly lapping 
over each other. By far the greater number of them feed 
upon the juices of plants, but some of them prey upon 
other and weaker insects; and a few species (of which the 
numbers, however, sometimes multiply to a great extent) 
suck the juices of larger animals. The majority of this 
order are found in tropical climates ; and the species 
which inhabit these regions are mostly ornamented with 
a great variety of beautiful colours and markings, often 
vying in brilliancy with the most splendid of the beetle 
tribes. Many species, however, are of aquatic habits ; 
and they are all of an obscure black colour. Nearly all 
the terrestrial species have the power of emitting, when 
suddenly alarmed or touched, a powerful odour, which is 
of a pleasing character in some species, but in others 
(as the common bed-bug) very disgusting. Others seem 
to inject a poisonous fluid into the wound they make for 
the purpose of suction. In some species the wings are 
altogether undeveloped, or the upper pair is wanting. 
The insects of this order continue active, and require food, 
during all the stages of their existence. They may be 

631. What singular transformations are cited ? 

632. How is this order distinguished, and how divided ? 



356 



ZOOLOGY. 






divided into two sections, distinguished by their residence 
— the Geocorisa, or Land-Bugs, and the Hydrocorisa, or 
Water-Bugs. 

589. The first section contains a large number of fami- 
lies, nearly all of which bear a considerable resemblance 
to that which includes the common Bugs, the Cimictd^:. 
Some of the tropical species attain considerable size, being 
described as of the bulk of a cockchafer, and they are much 
dreaded by the inhabitants of the regions they infest. The 
expression of the Psalmist (Psalm xci. 5) is considered 
by many learned commentators as referring to them. 
Many of the Geocorisa, however, are vegetable feeders, and 
it is among these that the most brilliant colours exhibit 
hemselves. Some of them, belonging to the family Hv- 
drometrid^e, are distinguished by their power of moving 
on the surface of standing or running w r aters. The body 
is long, narrow, and generally covered on the under 
surface with a fine layer of plush, which is evidently 
serviceable in repelling the fluid. The most active species 
have the body shaped like a London wherry, and they are 
rapidly propelled along the surface by the oar-like action 
of the two middle feet, which do not, however, dip into 
the water, but merely brush along it ; the hind legs, 
brought together, serve the purpose of a rudder. In some 
of the species, however, there is less power of swimming ; 
the insect creeping along aquatic plants, with its body 
elevated above the surface. In this tribe, as well as in 
the Land-Bugs more strictly so called, wingless individuals 
are not unfrequently s^en. 

590. Of the true Water-Bugs, there are two families 
only ; and both these deserve notice. The Notonectidje 
live almost entirely in the water, where they feed upon 
other aquatic insects ; these they seize by means of their 
fore legs, which are formed as claws. The two hinder 
pairs have a fringe of bristles along their edge, by which 
the surface with which they strike the water in swimming 
is greatly increased. Their general form is extremely 



633. What varieiy of Land-bugi is described I 

634. What family are aquatic 111 tin ir habits* 



ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 357 

well adapted for rapid progression in water ; and, from 
the peculiar aspect of the body, they have received the 
name of boat -flies. The insects of this family swim on 
their backs, a peculiarity to which their name refers ; and 
the arrangements of ail their organs has reference to this 
position. When stationary a r the surface of water, as 
is much their custom in hot weather, they very quickly 
obtain intelligence of the approach of danger, by means 
of their ey^s, which are so placed as to be able to see both 
above and below ; and then, by a single stroke of their 
paddles, which are ordinarily stretched out at full length, 
they descend out of sight. Their motions are very quick 
in the element they chiefly inhabit, whilst on land they 
are scarcely able to walk. They fly well. The larvae 
and pupae differ from the imago only in their smaller size, 
and in the deficiency of wings. The Notonectidae carry 
down a supply of air for respiration beneath the wings. 

591. The Nepid.e are in most respects similar in struc- 
ture and habits to the insects of the last family. Their 
motions, however, are much slower. They are very pre- 
dacious, feeding upon other insects, and especially on the 
larvae of Ephemerae. They breathe, when in the water, 
by two tubular appendages at the extremity of the body, 
which, when projected above the surface, admit the ail 
into the system of respiratory vessels contained within. 
The Nepa Cinerea is a common British species ; it is of a 
dirty ash-colour, with the upper surface of the abdomen 
bright red. Like the rest of the family, it is able, when so 
disposed, to leave the water, and take wing. 

Order VII. — Lepidoptera. 

592. The order Lepidoptera, characterized, as formerly 
stated, by the downy covering of the wings (which is com- 
posed of minute scales, arranged with great regularity 
upon the membrane itself), contains some of the most 
beautiful forms of the whole class, as well as some of the 
largest. The number of species it comprehends is pro- 



635. Describe the water-bugs and their variety. 
o3o. How is the seventh order characterized ? 






358 



ZOOLOGY. 



bably as great as that of any other order except the Cole- 
optera, and may probably rank as about one-fifth or one- 
sixth of the whole class. 

593. All the insects of this order belong to the well- 
known forms of Butterflies and Moths ; and there is so 
much general resemblance among them, that the difficulty 
of classifying them is often considerable. The possession 
of scales upon the wings is not altogether peculiar to them; 
for they are found on the wings and bodies of other insects. 
But it is only in these that the wings are covered with 
such complete layers of them. The scales are generally 
of somewhat oval form, terminating at one end in a kind 
of stalk, by which they are attached to the membrane of 
the wing ; and on this they are arranged in rows, over- 
lapping each other like tiles in a roof. They may be 
easily rubbed ofTwith the finger; and the bare membrane 
is left, which is then seen to correspond with the wings 
of other insects. The number of scales covering the 
wings of the silk-worm has been estimated at about 
400,000. It is entirely to the scales that the colours of 
the wings are due ; and sometimes these are so brilliant 
as to be almost painful to look upon, if a strong sunlight 
is reflected from the surface. In some species the wings 
are partially, or even almost entirely, destitute of scales. 

594. The Lepidoptera, in their perfect state, are formed 
to exist entirely upon fluid nutriment, which they suck 
up by means of a long trunk, which is usually coiled up 
spirally under the head. This trunk is not an organ al- 
together peculiar to them, however, for it is constructed 
out of the lower pair of jaws, or maxillae, which are very 
much prolonged ; each is channelled on the side nearest 
the other, and furnished with very closely set teeth along 
its whole edge. When the edges are brought together, 
and the teeth lock into one another, a perfect tube is 
formed by the junction of the channels in the two, and 
through this canal these beautiful insects suck up the juices 
of flowers, to which they seem, in the brilliancy of their 

637. To what forms do these insects belong ? 

638. What is peculiar to this family ? 

639. What is remarkable in thpir structure and habit 



LEP1D0PTERA METAMORPHOSIS. 359 

colours, and the softness yet liveliness of their aspect, the 

most appropriate companions. In the language of the poet, 

" They ilutu r round ihe jasmine stems, 
Like winged flowers or flying gems." 

All the other parts of the mouth usually possessed by in- 
sects, may be detected in that of the Lepidoptera, but in 
a different state of development. The antennae are va- 
riable in size, and always composed of a great number of 
joints. The eyes are usually large, and contain a consi- 
derable number of facets. 

595. The thorax of the Lepidoptera is less distinctly 
separated from the other divisions than in most insects. 
The first pair of legs is often small, folded beneath the 
body, and concealed by the hair, so that the butterfly seems 
to have but four legs. The wings are generally of large 
size, simply veined, and incapable of being folded toge- 
ther ; two pairs exist in almost every instance, and these 
are often held together during flight by a peculiar contri- 
vance. This consists of a strong bristle on one winqf, 
which plays in a loop on the other. The abdomen is cylin- 
drical in form, and possesses no sting at its extremity. All 
the Lepidoptera are either males or females, neuters 
having no existence in this order. There is often a con- 
siderable difference in the colouring of the two sexes, so 
that they might have been supposed to belong to differ- 
ent species ; the females are generally the largest, and 
most dully coloured. They are occasionally almost des- 
titute of wings, and much resemble full-grown larvae in 
their aspect. 

596. The curious phenomena of the metamorphosis are 
presented to our notice more remarkably, perhaps, in this 
order than in any other. " Were a naturalist," it has 
been strikingly remarked, " to announce to the world the 
discovery of an animal which, for the first five years of its 
life, existed in the form of a serpent, which then penetrat- 
ing into the earth, and weaving a shroud of pure silk of 
the finest texture, contracted itself within this covering 
into a body without external mouths or limbs, and re- 



';4i». What ei.^r is said of this family ? 



SCO ZOOLOGY. 

sembling more than any thing else an Egyptian mummy ; 
and which, lastly, after remaining in this state without food 
and without motion for three years longer, should, at the end 
of that period, burst its silken cerements, struggle through 
its earthly covering, and start into day a winged bird — 
what would be the sensation excited by this piece of intelli- 
gence ?" This is one of the many instances in which the 
real phenomena of nature are passed over with inattention, 
solely because they are common ; but by which, taken 
alone, as much of wonder might be raised as by the fabu- 
lous metamorphosis of Ovid, or the magical transformations 
of the East. 

597. All the beings commonly known as caterpillars 
are the larvae of Lepidoptera. They are produced from 
eggs of various forms and curious markings (sometimes 
almost resembling Echini), which have been deposited 
by the parent upon the leaves that are to serve as the 
food of the larvae when hatched. The body of the cater- 
pillar is generally cylindrical, and divided into twelve 
segments, besides that which represents the head. Nine 
stigmata may be seen on each side ; and the surface of 
the skin is sometimes smooth, sometimes covered with 
hairs, and sometimes beset at intervals with strong 
spines. 

59$. The three first segments of the body have each 
a pair of simple, short, and jointed feet, which are the ru- 
diments of those of the perfect insect. Behind these are 
a variable number of temporary appendages, called pro- 
legs, which are thick, short, fleshy limbs, armed at their 
extremity with a great number of minute hooks, and 
furnished.with powerful muscles. There are usually five 
pairs of these — four of them succeeding the true legs, and 
another arising from the last segment of the body. Those 
possessing pro-legs on nearly every segment, crawl upon 
all the feet at once, after the manner of the Myriapoda ; 
but those which have only a small number of pro-legs, 
adopt a different method. They seize fast hold of the ob- 

641. What of their metamorphosis? 
C4'3. What of caterpillars ? 

643. Describe their peculiar structure. 



LEPIDOPTERA METAMORPHOSIS. 36 1 

jects on which they are stationed with the six true legs 
at the fore part of the body, and then elevate the inter- 
mediate segments into an arch, until they bring the pro- 




Caterpillar and Chrysalis of the Magpie Moth. 

legs behind close to the others ; they then disengage the 
true feet, and retaining hold with the pro-legs, thrust the 
body to its full length, and then recommence the same 
manoeuvre. These are called Loopers or Geometers. 
Many of them resemble, in their forms and colours, as 
well as in their mode of standing fixed for a great length 
of time by their hind legs only to twigs, small pieces of 
stick. 

599. The greater number of caterpillars are vegetable 
feeders, and are mostly confined to the leaves ; and the 
correspondence between the development of the leaves and 
flowers of plants on the one hand, with that of the cater- 
pillars and butterflies which are respectively to feed upon 
them, cannot but strike every one as a beautiful instance 
of creative foresight. But there are some caterpillars 
adapted to feed on flowers (such as come forth early in 
the year), and others attack seeds, roots, and even the 
woody portion of the stem. Moreover, there are a few 
which live in this state upon animal matter, such as wool, 



644. What of the diagram ? 

645. What instance ot Divine Wisdom is cited ? 

31 



ob'2 ZOOLOGY. 

hides, leather, and fat. Many can digest a considerable 
variety of alimentary materials ; whilst there are others 
that can only find support on some one kind — the leaves 
of a particular species of plant, for example. 

000. The habits of caterpillars are extremely various. 
Some burrow into the substance of leaves, in which they 
excavate galleries ; others envelop themselves in the mem- 
brane of the leaf itself. Many construct cases or sheaths, 
either fixed or portable, by agglutinating various substances 
together ; and there are some which live in societies, liv- 
ing together under a tent of silk which they spin in 
common, and which serves to defend them from the incle- 
mency of the weather. They usually throw off their skin 
four times, before undergoing the transformation into the 
chrysalis state. For this they prepare by spinning a cor on, 
in which they are enclosed during the greater part of that 
epoch. Some construct this entirely of silk ; others attach 
together portions of leaves or particles of earth by silken 
threads. These threads are formed by a glutinous secre- 
tion from glands which seem analogous to the salivary 
glands of other animals ; and this being forced out through 
a small opening at the end of the lip, hardens as it die 

the air. There are some caterpillars which form no cocoon, 
but which are contented with suspending themselves by 
the attachment of the hinder part of the body to some solid 
support, or by a silken thread coiled around them. 

001. The chrysalis, or nymph, has the whole body en- 
closed in a tough envelope, under which, however, the 
form of the parts of the future insect may be discerned. 
At the moment of the final transformation, it dischu 
from its intestine a red liquid, which softens one end of 
the cocoon, and allows the exit of the moth. Generally, 
OOe end of it is weaker, or even fitted by the arrangement 
of the threads for the escape of the insect. 

002. The butterfly % when k throws off its last envelope, 
and comes forth into the air, of which it is henceforth 
to be one of the gayest inhabitants, is not altogether 



646. wine is remarkable in 1 1 1* ; i r habits 1 

647. Wliai of the cocoon, » liry^alis and Imiierfly? 



LEPIDOPTERA THE BUTTERFLIES. 363 

perfect, although capable of very soon becoming so. The 
wrings appear at first very slightly developed, and hang 
loosely by the sides ; and it is not until the animal has in- 
jected their tubes with air, by taking several full inspira- 
tions, that they become expanded so as to serve for flight. 
From that period, the body is supported by them during 
by tar the greatest proportion of the active state. 

('A)'A. The order of Lepidoptera is usually divided into 
three sections, which are different alike in their conforma- 
tion and habits. These are — (i.) The Diurna. or Butter- 
flies % which may be at once recognised by the vertical posi- 
tion of the wings during repose ; (n.) The Crepuscularia, 
or 7 'wi/i <{ht- Mot lis , commonly known as Hawk-Moths, 
in which the wings are horizontal in repose, and the an- 
tenna? thick or club-shaped ; (m.) The Nocturna, or true 
Motli** whose wings are also horizontal or inclined in re- 
pose, but whose antenna? are more slender, tapering gra- 
dually from the base to the point. 

004. Section I. Diurna. — The first section corresponds 
with the Linnaean genus Papilio, which is now, however, 
very much subdivided. The Butterflies are distinguished 
from other Lepidoptera by the brilliancy of their colouring, 
and by the beauty of the under as well as of the upper 
side of the wings. Their caterpillars have generally six- 
teen feet ; and their pupa? are nearly always destitute of 
any silken envelope, and are attached by the tail. The 
antenna? of Butterflies are sometimes knobbed at their ex- 
tremities, sometimes of the same thickness throughout, and 
sometimes Uipering gradually from base to point. This 
section may be divided into three families, according to 
peculiarities in the metamorphosis. 

605. (i.) In the first family, the chrysalis is attached by 
a cord around the body, as well as by the tail. This in- 
cludes many well-known forms. The Papilionidae have 
six pairs of legs fitted for walking ; and the two sexes are 
nearly alike. They are remarkable for their size and the 
variety of their colours, especially in the equatorial regions 



648. How is rhis order divided ? 

649. What division is made of the first section? 



364 ZOOLOGY. 

- 

of both hemispheres. Many have the hind wings pro- 
longed into a kind of tail, as the common papilio machaon, 
or swallow-tailed butterfly. In some other tribes of this 
section, the first pair of legs is very short. 

006\ (n.) In the second family of the Diurnal Lepidop- 
tera, the chrysalis is suspended simply by the tail ; and in 
all of these the males, and generally the females, have the 
first pair of legs very small, and folded against the thorax. 
In this tribe we find the genus Vanessa, which is distin- 
guished by the form of the antennae, these terminating 
suddenly in a short knob. This genus contains many of 
the most common and beautiful butterflies of Great Britain ; 
as, for instance, the Vanessa antiopa, or Camberwell 
beauty ; the V. 10, the peacock ; V, cardui, the painted 
lady ; V. atahmfa, the red admiral ; V, p dychloros, the 
large tortoise-shell ; and V. article, the small tortoise-shell. 
These names will sufficiently indicate the general aspect 
of the Butterflies of this genus. The Jirgynnis, an allied 
genus, has pearly spots on the under side of the wings, 
and the club of the antennae is oblong. The accompany- 
ing figure gives a good representation of the general as- 




pect of the Diurnal Lepidoptera. The Nymphalis is an- 
other allied genus, remarkable for the brilliancy of its 
colouring and its hiirh and rapid flight. The males of 
some species have changeable reflections in their hues, os 
in the V. iris, or purple emperor. 

650 Describe the varieties of the firai and second family. 



LKPIDOPTERA — THE HAWK-MOTHS. 365 

607. (in.) The last subdivision of the Diurna, composed 
of those species in which the caterpillars enclose them- 
selves, instead of merely suspending their bodies, is a very 
small one. When about to undergo their transformation, 
they roll up leaves, and spin a thin web of silk within. 
The principal genus of this tribe is that of Hespt ria, of 
which the species are numerous, and are known to collec- 
tors under the name of Skipper Butterflies, on account 
of their peculiar flight. One species, of which the cater- 
pillar lives on the mallow, is a common example. In this 
group the wings are often inclined, or even horizontal, 
when in repose; thus conducting us towards the next 
family. 

608. Section II. Crepuscularia. — The section of Cre- 
puscularia, or Haick-Moths, corresponds with the Lin- 
na?an genus Sphinx, which derived its name from the pecu- 
liar attitudes (resembling that of the sculptured sphinx of 
antiquity) into which the larva sometimes throws itself. 
Although the Lepidoptera arranged under this division, 
on account of their similarity of structure, are mostly twi- 
light fliers, it is not the case with all ; for there are some 
which come abroad in open daylight, and suck the juices 
of flowers with their long trunks, whilst the sun is brightly 
illumining their wines. These species are observed to 
be more brilliantly coloured than the rest. In most of 
the Sphinges the body and wings have a dull brownish- 
gray aspect, like that of many owls, whose habits are simi- 
lar. The wings are more downy in appearance than 
those of the Butterflies, as if the scales did not lie so closely 
upon each other. The larvae of the Crepuscularia have 
always sixteen feet ; and their pupae are either enclosed in 
a cocoon, or bury themselves in the earth. The Hawk- 
Moths make a loud humming noise in their flight. 

609. (iv.) The first family, Hesperi-Sphinges, evi- 
dently connects, as its name imports, the true Sphinges 
with the last group of the Diurna. The genera it includes 
are principally exotic. 



651. What of the third subdivision? 

652. Describe the second section. 

31* 







w 



ZOOLOGY. 



610. (v.) The second family, the true Sphinges, con- 
tains some of the largest species of the order. They may 
be known by the peculiar brush of scales in which the an- 
tennae terminate. The majority of their caterpillars have 
the body destitute of hairs, but furnished with a kind of 
horn on the back, near its extremity . They feed on leaves, 
and undergo their changes in the earth, without weaving a 
web. They fly with great swiftness, hovering over flow- 
ers, from which they pump up the juices by means of their 
long trunks, and make a loud humming noise. One of 
the most remarkable of this group is the death's-head moth 
(acherontia atropos), recognised by the skull-like patch 




Acherontia Atropos. 

on the back of the thorax. This emits a squeaking kind 
of sound, sometimes rather loud, but upon the mode in 
which it is produced entomologists are not agreed. In 
consequence of the peculiar aspect of its body, the sudden 
appearance of this insect, in large numbers, has been popu- 
larly regarded as ominous of evil. It is a great enemy to 
bees, and enters their hives undefended, alarming the in- 
habitants so that they seem to keep aloof from it, and de- 



ring the honey. 



(ill. In some species of Sphinges, the larvae have the 
power of thrusting out the anterior part of the body to a 
great length, like the trunk of an elephant, whence they 
have been called elephant hawk-moths. A very beautiful 
British species of sphinx is the S. stellatarum, or hum- 



653. How are the Sphinges divided ? 

654. Describe each species. 

655. What of the diagram ? 



LEPIDOPTERA — NOCTURNAL GROUP. 367 

ming-bird hawk-moth, commonly called the bee-bird. 
This is remarkable for flying during the hottest sunshine, 
and for keeping itself poised over flowers during a long 
period, whilst imbibing their juices ; the movement of 
the wings emitting a sound, " deep, full, lulling and mu- 
sical." This species is not so restricted as to the time of 
its production as are most others ; it being found in the 
perfect as well as the larva state from the spring until the 
first frosts of winter. 

612. (vi.) The tribe of Sesiadjs, constituting the third 
sub-division of the Crepuscularia, is small and little 
known. The insects composing it, however, are remark- 
able for the strong resemblance they bear to wasps and 
other Hymenoptera, to Diptera, &c. The caterpillars 
feed on the internal part of the stems and roots of plants, 
and they construct their cocoons in these stems with the 
debris of the substance on which they have fed. 

613. (vn.) The last section of this group consists of 
the Zycentdje ; a tribe of which most of the members fre- 
quent the open daylight, and even prefer the strong rays 
of the sun. Their larvae live, without any protection, on 
the leguminous plants which serve as their food, and they 
form a silken cocoon, which they attach to the stems of 
those plants. The perfect insects are of small size, but 
generally remarkable for the brilliancy of their colours, 
and some of the exotic species are exceedingly beautiful. 
Their flight is usually slow. 

614. Section III. Nocturna. — The group of nocturnal 
Lepidoptera is by far the largest of the order. In general 
aspect, Moths and Sphinges are somewhat alike, but they 
may be at once distinguished by the form of the antennae, 
which, in the latter, gradually taper from the base to the 
point. Many of them have no distinct trunk, and in 
some species the females are almost or altogether destitute 
of wings. In general, these organs assume a horizontal 
or inclined position, and are connected in the same manner 
as in the Sphinges. Sometimes they can be rolled around 
the body, and in a few instances they fold longitudinally 

656. What other tribes are described ? 



308 ZOOLOGY. 

like a fan. The greater part of these Lepidoptera fly by- 
night, and their colours are usually dull. Their caterpil- 
lars vary as to the number of legs from ten to sixteen, and 
their pupae are of rounded form, without those angular 
projections usually seen in those of other families, and 
almost always spin a cocoon. The large number of spe- 
cies belonging to this section, and the general similarity 
of their form, make their classification a matter of much 
difficulty. They have been divided into ten families, of 
which only the most important will now be noticed. 

615. (viii.) The tribe of Hepialid^e feed in their larva 
state upon the interior of plants, in the substance of which 
the caterpillar buries itseif. One species devours the 
roots of the hop, and is very injurious where that plant is 
cultivated. In its perfect state it is known by the name 
of the ghost moth, from the peculiar habit observed in the 
male, of hovering with a pendulum-like motion for a great 
length of time in one situation (often in churchyards), 
where the female is concealed in the grass, and its white 
colour renders it very conspicuous. The cossus ligni- 
perda, or great moth, is one of the largest British Lepid- 
optera. In its larva state it feeds upon the wood of wil- 
low trees, which it perforates in every direction, so that 
they are blown down by the first strong wind. It was 
this caterpillar, to the anatomy of which the celebrated 
Lyonnet devoted twenty years of study. He found in it 
4041 muscles. It is not confined to the willow, but bur- 
rows also in the oak, and more frequently in the elm. 

010. (ix.) The next tribe, the BombyciDjE, consists o r 
moths allied to that of the common silk-worm. Their pro- 
boscis is very short, and not spirally folded. The pupae 
are enclosed in cocoons of pure silk, frequently of very 
firm texture, and are rarely subterranean. The prevail- 
ing hues of these moths are gray, or fawn colour, and 
many of the larger species have the wings ornamented 
with eye-like spots. This tribe contains the largest spe- 
cies of Lepidoptera, which are mostly included in th<e 



(157. What of the nocturnal variety ? 

t>58. Describe ihe eighth iribe, olid ils vurietieb. 



LfcPIDOPTERA THE SILK-WORM. 369 

genus Saturnia ; this is distinguished from the true 
Bom by x by the horizontal position of both wings, the 
anterior pair in the latter being inclined. The S. atlas, a 
native of China, sometimes measures twelve inches across 
the wings. The S. pavonia major, found in France, has 
been seen to attain the breadth of five inches ; and the S. 
[aroma minor, or emperor moth, attains in this country 
the breadth of three inches and a half. It is believed that 
the silk formerly obtained from China and India proceeded 
from the caterpillars of this genus. Many of them are 
remarkable for the contrivances they adopt for security 
in the chrysalis state ; and among the most so is the S. 
promethea, an American species, which, previously to 
spinning, draws together the sides of a leaf (within which 
it afterwards forms its cocoon), and fastens its stalk to the 
stem by a strong silken web. 

ol7. The genus Bombyx is an extremely important 
and interesting one, as it is by the caterpillar of the B. 
mori that all the silk now employed in Europe is produced. 
The larva feeds especially upon the mulberry, although it 
may be grown upon other plants ; but as the silk pro- 
duced by the former is preferable, that tree is grown to a 
great extent in Italy and the south of France, where the 
breeding of silk-worms is carried on. The quantity of 
nutriment they require is enormous in proportion to their 
original size, but probably not greater than that consumed 
by other caterpillars. The care bestowed upon them, 
however, draws attention to the fact. The larva is reck- 
oned to weigh, when first hatched, about one-hundredth 
of a grain ; previously to its metamorphosis it increases 
to ninety-five grains, or 9500 times its original weight. 
It is reckoned that, for the larvae proceeding from an ounce 
of eggs, nearly two thousand pounds of leaves are requi- 
site. The caterpillars of another species of Bombyx are 
very remarkable for their curious habits. They live in 
societies on the leaves of the oak ; and spin, when young, 
a kind of silken tent, divided within into cells. They 
may be seen to issue from it in the evening in procession. 

659. What of the various spe ies in the ninth family ? 



370 ZOOLOGY. 

One of them advances at the head, and seems to act as a 
guide ; two then follow ; iiext three ; then four, and so 
on, each rank containing one more than the preceding 
one. Hence they have been called processionary cater- 
pillars. Each spins a separate cocoon ; but they are 
united in regular opposition, laid side by side against each 
other. 

618. (x.) The tribe of Nocttjid,e includes a large pro- 
portion of the whole family of Moths, as many as 400 
British species being known. They have a spirally-rolled 
trunk, which is generally long, and possess considerable 
powers of flight. Their colours are very sombre, and 
their habits, as their name imports, almost exclusively noc- 
turnal. The common Moths which flutter about our can- 
dles mostly belong to this group. Their larvae ordinarily 
undergo their transformations underground, in cocoons, in 
which particles of earth are often mixed with the silk. 

019. (xi.) The tribe of Geometrid^e may be noticed, 
on account of the peculiar mode of progression of their 
caterpillars, already alluded to. They often escape ob- 
servation by remaining in one position for a long period, 
even several days ; the dull colour and knotted aspect of the 
body making it resemble a twig of the stem on which it 
is. Some species have the instinct, when alarmed, of 
dropping down from the leaves, and suspending themselves 
by a thread, 'which enables them to remount when the 
danger is past. Small caterpillars possessing this power 
may be very commonly noticed. 

020. (xii.) The TortricidjE are a tribe of Moths whose 
larvae are peculiarly destructive to our fruit and forest trees. 
Some twist and roll up the leaves, connecting them to- 
gether by a silken web, forming a kind of tube, in which 
they live. Others tie several of the young leaves together, 
consuming the inner layers, and preventing their develop- 
ment ; others particularly attack the flowers, destroying 
them whilst yet in bud. A species of this group is one 

660. What of the Bombyx genus ? 

661. Describe this variety, and its habits. 

662. What other tribes are here named ? 



LEPIDOPTERA — THE SILK- WORM. 371 

of the most destructive enemies to the apple crops of this 
country, laying its eggs in the eyes of the newly-formed 
fruit, within which the larva feeds, its presence being only 
indicated by the premature falling of the fruit. Another 
feeds upon the leaves of the oak, which it has been known 
to strip of its entire foliage ; and the vines of the south of 
France have recently suffered much from the ravages of 
another species, which rolls up and fastens together the 
young leaves. 

621. (xiii.) The family of Tineid^e contains those little 
Moths which are so injurious to woollen stuffs of every 
kind, as well as to furs, skins, feathers, and other objects 
of natural history, upon which their voracious larvae feed. 
They use the material also for the construction of their 
movable cases or sheaths, which they enlarge with the 
increasing size of their bodies, both by adding to their ex- 
tremities, and by slitting them along and inserting a new 
piece, so as to increase their diameter. In these tubes 
they undergo their metamorphosis, after closing the orifice 
with silk. The Pseudo-Tineas, as they have been termed, 
burrow in leaves, and construct sheaths for themselves ; 
but these are fixed, and not carried about on their bodies. 
The caterpillars of an allied genus, the Hydrocampe, are 
remarkable for their aquatic habits. They are furnished 
with appendages resembling long hairs, inside of which 
are breathing-tubes. In the habits of this family, we have 
an evident approach to those of the order Trichoptera. 

022. (xiv.) The Tisipenn^e are distinguished from all 
other Lepidoptera by the division of the membrane of the 
wings into branches or rays, of which each pair has from 
two to six. These are most beautifully fringed at their 
edges, and much resemble the feathers of birds. The rays 
are composed of the nerves, without any of the usual in- 
tervening membrane, which seems to be transformed into 
the fringe. These insects (commonly known by the name 
of Plumed Moths) are of small size ; some of them are 
diurnal, and brightly coloured ; others are twilight-fliers. 



663. What of the thirteenth family of moths ? 

664. How is the last family described i 



372 ZOOLOGY. 

and of a duller aspect. Some species have the power of 
folding up their wings, one ray against another, somewhat 
like a fan ; so that, when closed, they present the appear- 
ance of a single broad ray. 

Order VIII. — Diptera. 

623. The two-winged insects constitute one of the most 
extensive orders of the whole class, not only in regard to 
the number of distinct species, but also from the swarms 
of individuals of the same species. Many of them, also, 
have been constant attendants upon man in all ages. They 
do not attract attention from their size, however, for there 
are few that exceed an inch in length ; nor is it on account 
of their beauty, for the majority of them are of dull colours ; 
tru'ir forms, too, are rarely elegant, and the transformations 
of many are unknown. They owe the notice they have 
attracted chiefly to their habits, and especially to those 
which affect man and the domestic animals, both in their 
perfect and early states. However annoying these are. it 
must not be forgotten that other Diptera are of extreme 
service, by cleansing the surface of the earth of vegetable 
and animal impurities : the carcass that is full of maggots 
would be much more prejudicial in its decomposition than 
if it were not principally eaten up by these voracious crea- 
tures. 

(>2i. The mouth of these insects is formed only for im- 
bibing fluid matter, and in many tribes is furnished (as 
formerly stated) with lancets for puncturing the flesh from 
which they suck the juices ; both the channels through 
which they draw the fluid, and these accessory organs, 
consisting only of the usual parts of the mouth, altered in 
form and arrangement. The development of the portions 
of the thorax bears a relation to that of the wings. The 
first segment is very minute, as is also the third; whilst 
the second, from which arises the single pair of wings, 
that corresponds with the anterior wings of other insects, 
is greatly extended. The wings are membranous, and 

665. How is the next order described ? 

666. What of their structure ? 



DIPTEUA — GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 



373 



destitute of any covering, except at the base in some species, 
where there are few hair-like scales. Behind the base of 
these wings, there is a pair of small membranous appen- 
dages, termed winglets, which are usually regarded as the 
rudiments of the second pair of wings possessed by other 
insects, but which are probably to be really considered as 
appendages of the first. The true analogues of the second 
pair are the curious organs termed halferes, or poisers, 
which are very characteristic of this order, being present, 
even when the wings are wanting. These are two slen- 
der spiny organs, sometimes terminating in a little enlarge- 
ment, like the head of a pin. They are generally kept 
in constant vibration, but nothing is known regarding their 
use. Their size is usually in inverse proportion to that 
of the winglets. 

025. The Diptera all undergo a complete metamorpho- 
sis as far as the structure of the larvae is concerned ; these 
being generally cylindrical footless grubs, no representa- 
tives of legs being found except in a few species. But in 
many there is no proper transformation into the pupa state 
— th^ skin of the larva, which hardens* contracts, and 
shortens, becoming (as it were) the cocoon for the chry- 
salis. The body is detached from its interior, leaving the 
organs peculiar to 
the larva, such as 
the parts of the 
mouth, adherent 
to the inside of 
the skin. Shortly 
afterwards, the en- 
closed being as- 
sumes the form of 
a soft and gelatin- 
ous mass, without 
any of the parts 
of the future in- 
sect being visible; 

some daVS after Stratiomys Chameleon — Larva, Pupa, and Imago. 




667. Describe their metamorphosis. 

668. What of the diagram ? 

32 



374 ZOOLOGY. 

however, these organs become distinct, and the insect has 
then assumed the real state of pupa, though without hav- 
ing yet thrown offits larva skin. When ready to escape, 
it scales off the anterior end of its case like a cap. Many 
larvae, however, throw off their skins, when assuming the 
pupa state, and some spin a regular cocoon. The dura- 
tion of life in the perfect state is usually very short. 

626. In subdividing the order, we first separate from it 
a small but remarkable group which forms the transition 
to the more aberrant orders of the class, especially the 
Aphaniptera. Some of them are entirely destitute of wings, 
and yet in their general structure correspond with the 
Diptera. They are distinguished from all other insects 
by their curious mode of reproduction. Not only are the 
eggs hatched within the body of the parent, but the larvae 
are retained there until they have been transformed into 
pupae, in which state they come forth into the world. 
Hence the group has received the name of Pupipara. 

627. The remaining Diptera, constituting by far the 
largest proportion of the class, may be divided into four 
sections. In the first, Nemocera, the antennae are com- 
posed of more than six joints, whilst in all the remainder 
the antennae are short, not having apparently more than 
three distinct joints. In the second, Notacantha, the 
last division of the antennae is really composed of two ; the 
proboscis does not project much from the mouth, and is 
furnished with only two lancets. In the third, Tanystoma, 
the antennae have really only three joints, the last being 
usually terminated by a se'a, or bustle. And in the fourth, 
the Athericera, the antennae are only two or three-joint- 
ed, and the proboscis is withdrawn into the mouth. 

62 s *. Section I. Nemocera. — To the Nemocera belong 
the two families of Culicid^: and Tipluid^e ; the former 
known as the Gnat tribe, the latter as the Harry-long- 
leg*. The former are distinguished by their beautifully 
tufted antennae. Gnats are well known to abound chiefly 
in damp situations ; the reason being, that their larvae are 
inhabitants of the water. In this state they are very ac 

669, Ilnw is ihia diss divided ' 



DIPTERA — THE GNATS, &C. #75 

five, swimming with great agility, and often descending, 
hut coming to the surface to breathe, which they do head 
downwards* tne respiratory orifice being at the end of the 
tail. The head is furnished with a pair of ciliated organs, 
by means of which are produced currents in the water, - 
that serve to bring them food. After undergoing several 
moultings, they become transformed into pupae, which con- 
tinue to swim by the action of their tails and two oar- 
like pieces at their extremity, but respire by openings in 
the thorax. When the final transformation occurs, the 
skin of the pupa, which is being cast, serves as a kind 
of raft, which prevents the perfect insect from being im- 
mersed in water. The penetration of the skin by gnats is 
accomplished by their delicate lancets, and the blood is 
then sucked up by the proboscis, a venomous fluid being 
discharged into the wound. Man is only attacked by 
female gnats, the organs of the mouth in males being 
fewer and weaker. The females deposit their eggs in 
the water, uniting them in a mass, which resembles a small 
boat. All the changes are effected, during warm weather, 
in the course of three or four weeks ; so that many gene- 
rations may be produced in the course of a year. The 
musquitoes which infest many countries, especially in 
warm latitudes, differ but little from the common gnats. 
They sometimes appear in such swarms, especially in 
marshy districts, as to be kept off only by fire. 

629. Of the Tipulid^s, the larvae of some live in water, 
and resemble those of gnats, whilst those of others live in 
the earth, in the rotten parts of trees, fungi, &c. The 
former are known as midges; the c* ne-flies, tailors, 
Harry-long-legs, &c, belong to the latter. Some species 
of this tribe are extremely injurious to the wheat crops, 
both in Europe and America. The eorgs are deposited 
by the females in the centre of the corolla, and the forma- 
tion of the seed is prevented by the voracity of the larvae 
produced from them. The most destructive of the Ame- 



670. What two families belong to the first section ? 

671. Describe each of these. 

672. How is the next section divided ? 



376 ZOOLOGY. 

rican species is known under the name of the Hessian 
fly. 

080. Section II. Notacantha. — The second section 
of the Diptera contains three families, Stratiomid^e, 
Berid*:, and C^nomyid^e, which do not attract much at- 
tention, although some of the insects contained in them 
are very abundant. They are generally small but gaily 
coloured insects, and are most numerous in moist situa- 
tions, in which the larvae are generally produced. They 
mostly feed upon vegetable rather than animal juices. 

631. Section III. Tanystoma. — The insects composing 
the third division have usually a more perfect mouth than 
those of the other sections ; and they are also remarkable 
for the structure of the head of the larva, which possesses 
two claw-like appendages, by which they attach them- 
selves to the substances from which they derive their sup- 
port. Many of the perfect insects are eminently carnivo- 
rous or insectivorous, as are also some of the larvae. To 
this group belongs the family of Tabamd^e, the Gad-Fly 
tribe, to which belong the largest Dipterous Insects, pre- 
eminently distinguished for the tormenting powers which 
the different species possess, by piercing the skins and 
sucking the blood of various quadrupeds, and even of man 
himself. So noxious is one species of these insects to the 
cattle in some parts of Africa, that, according to Bruce, 
unless they are driven to the sandy regions when attacked 
by it, they forsake their food, and run wildly about the 
plains, dreading even its very sound, until they die, 
worn out with fatigue, fright, and hunger; even the lion 
is said to be afraid of them. Gad-flies are sometimes so 
numerous, that cattle are covered with the blood that flows 
from their punctures. It is remarkable, however, that as 
in the Culicidae, only the females of these insects are 
blood-suckers, the males subsisting on the juices of 
flowers. 

032. The family of Bombylid^e is remarkable for the 
bee-like form and habits of the insects composing it. They 
fly with astonishing rapidity, hovering at times over flow- 

073. What of the third section and itw species? 



DIPTERA — THE FLY TRIBE. 377 

ers without settling, and extracting the nectar by means 
of their long proboscis, making at the same time a con- 
'derable humming with their wings. Their larvae are 
stated, however, to be carnivorous; some of the tropical 
species feeding on the larva? of the very bees they so 
strikingly represent. 

633. Several other families, containing a very large 
number of genera and species, belong to this section ; but as 
they closely resemble each other in structure and habits, 
and present little that is very peculiar in either, they need 
not be here particularized. They are mostly very active 
insects, some of them pursuing other insects on the wing 
and sucking their juices ; others, like the Bombylida?, 
chiefly deriving their subsistence from flowers. The tro- 
pical species are often brightly coloured ; and all of them 
seem to prefer warm situations. 

634. Section IV. Athericera. — The insects of the 
fourth tribe of Diptera are principally vegetable feeders 
in their perfect state, only a few being carnivorous, or 
feeding on other insects ; but their larva? are generally 
extremely voracious, and will devour almost any kind of 
soft animal matter. This section includes the flies strictly 
so called, the bot-flies, and many other tribes. 

035. The first family, that of Syrphid^e, bears an ex- 
tremely close resemblance to the humble-bees and wasps, 
in the nests of which some species of them deposit their 
eggs ; others lay them amongst Aphides, which fall an 
easy prey to the larva when it is hatched. The perfect 
insects are very partial to flowers preferring the Composita? ; 
and they delight to hover immovably over certain spots, 
to which they will return, if disturbed, a considerable 
number of times. Above a hundred species inhabit Bri- 
tain. In a few species, the larva? are aquatic, and the 
posterior part of the body is prolonged into a respiratory 
tube, whence they have received the name of rat-tailed 
larva?. The imago of one of these closely resembles in size 
and colour the male of the hive-bee. 

636. The form and habits of the family Muscid^:, or 

674. Describe the founh seciion. 
32* 



378 ZOOLOGY. 

Fly tribe, are generally known ; the family is an extremely 
numerous one, above 1700 species having been recorded 
as existing in Europe, of which about half are indigenous 
to Great Britain ; and there are probably at least as many 
more which have not been described. The strong general 
resemblance which exists among all the species, makes it 
very difficult (especially when their small size is consi- 
dered) to discriminate them readily. The larvae of these 
insects, commonly known as maggots, are soft, vermiform, 
footless grubs, possessing on the head a couple of retrac- 
tile hooks, by which they can cling to the substances on 
which they feed. They devour various substances, both 
animal and vegetable, living, recently dead, or far ad- 
vanced in putrefaction. They are extremely voracious, 
and multiply rapidly. The eggs are deposited by the 
female, as in other instances, in the neighbourhood, or in 
the very substance, of the food which is adapted for the 
support of the larva, however little to its own liking. The 
common meat-fly seems to be attracted to this by the smell ; 
for it has been noticed to deposit its eggs in the flower 
of a species of arum, which exhales an odour like that of 
tainted meat The larvae of many species exist only in 
the dung of various animals, of which they are thus very 
useful in cleansing the ground. Those of others are very 
injurious to agriculturists, mining the interior of vegetables, 
especially the roots of corn. The larvae of the liophila, 
commonly known as Cheese-hoppers, are remarkable for 
their leaping powers. Their movement is effected by 
first bending together the head and tail, and then suddenly 
straightening the body. In this way, a larva, whose length 
was only a quarter of an inch, has been known to spring 
six inches, or twenty-four times its length. 

(h',7. The CEstridjE, or Bot-Flies, are a family very 
remarkable in regard to their structure and habits. The 
perfect insects resemble large meat-flies in form, are very 
hairy, and generally have these hairs coloured in rings, 
like humble-bees ; but they are seldom seen, the duration 
of their lives being very short in this condition. Their 

675. What varieties are named? 



D1PTERA THE FLY TRIBE. 379 

chief peculiarity Consists in the absence of any proper 
mouth in the imago (in which respect there is an analogy 
with the Strepsiptera), and in the peculiar habitation of 
the larva. This is always found in living animals ; its 
situation, however, varying with the species of which al- 
most every herbivorous mammal has one or more peculiar 
to it. The egg is deposited by some in situations where 
the larva may burrow into the flesh, and occasions there 
inflammatory tumours, the fluids contained in which afford 
it nourishment. In other cases, the eggs or larvae, exist- 
ing upon spots which the animal is in the habit of licking, 
are conveyed by the tongue into the mouth, whence they 
pass into the stomach. There they remain until full grown, 
and then they quit the body (as do also those that inhabit 
the flesh) and fall to the ground, beneath the surface of 
which they undergo their transformations. The larvae of 
one species, which inhabits the sheep, are found in the 
cavities in the front of the bones of the skull, and higher 
parts of the nose. Man is subject to the attacks of one 
or more species, which do not, however, infest this 
country. 

638. The Pupiparous division of the Diptera contains 
two families, the Hippoboscid^e and NycteribiiDjE, the 
habits of all the species of which are. parasitic. The former, 
sometimes termed Forest-Flies, are of small size, covered 
with bristles, and sometimes destitute of wings. They are 
known to the French under the name of Spider-Flies. 
They reside upon quadrupeds and birds, running with 
great agility, and often sideways, burying themselves 
amongst the hair or feathers. That which is parasitic on 
sheep is known as the tick. One minute species infests 
the hive-bee ; and this is remarkable, not only for being 
destitute of wings, but of eyes also. All of this order pos- 
sess the hat teres, even when the wings are absent. In the 
other family, that of NycteribiidjE, both wings and ba- 
lancers are entirely absent, and the general form more 
nearly approaches that of spiders. It contains but few 
species, all of which are parasitic upon bats, and are com 

676. What of the habi la of the bot-flies ? 



380 ZUULOGY. 

monly termed bat-lice. The head seems attached to the 
upper part, instead of the front, of the thorax, and the legs 
arise from the margin in such a peculiar manner, that 
what seems the upper side is really the lower. Notwith- 
standing the absence of wings, these insects move with 
such agility as almost to appear to fly. 

Order IX. — Trichoptera. 

639. This order is a very small one, and consists but 
of one tribe, the Phryganeid^e, which have been com- 
monly associated with the Neuroptera. But there seems 
good reason for ranking them as a separate order, con- 
necting the Neuroptera with the Lepidoptera, for they 
resemble the latter in the distribution of the nerves of the 
wings, and in the hairy covering with which both the 
wings and bodies are beset, as well as in many other cha- 
racters. 

640. The larvae, well known under the name of caddice- 
worms, reside in cylindrical cases, open at each end, to 
which they attach various matters, as bits of stick, weeds, 
pebbles, or even small living shells, by the assistance of 
silken threads which they spin from the mouth in the 
same manner as caterpillars. These cases they bear 
about with them, protruding the three first segments, with 
their legs, when they creep forwards, and withdrawing 
these upon the slightest alarm ; they never quit the cases 
of their own accord. Different species appear to prefer 
different materials for the construction of their cases, but 
they have the power of employing almost any which fall 
in their way, when those they prefer are deficient. The 
food of some of the larva? is vegetable, but others prey upon 
smaller aquatic larvae, such as those of Neuroptera. Some 
of the larvae are furnished with external organs of respira- 
tion ; others breathe by spiracles. 

641. When about to assume the pupa state, the larvje 
fix their cases to some solid substance beneath the water, 
and close the two extremities with a kind of grating, that 

677. What other families are here described ? 

678. Describe the third order 

679. What of their larva? and pupa', ? 



STREPS1PTERA. 



381 



admits of the passage of water through the tube, which is 
necessary for respiration. When nearly arrived at their 
perfect form, they make their way out by the pair of hooked 
jaws with which they are then furnished, and swim ab ut 
with great activity by mi ans of the two hind legs, crawl- 
ing also upon the four first. The pupae of the larger 
species crt-ep out of the water, crawling up the stems of 
plants, &c, and undergoing their final change in the air ; 
but the smaller ones merely come to the surface, where 
they shed their pupa skin in the same manner as gnats, 
the old envelope serving them as a raft. The perfect in- 
sects are of moderate size, seldom reaching a couple of 




Phryganea Grandis ; 
A, Larva in its case; B, Grating; C, Imago. 

inches in the expanse of their wings. They run with 
great activity, but their flight is generally awkward. They 
are most active in the evening or at night, and are not un- 
frequently attracted by the light into houses ; they emit a 
disagreeable smell when touched. They live but a short 
time in the perfect state, taking no nourishment, and en- 
gaged only in propagating the race. 

Order X. — Strepsiptera. 

642. This is a small order, containing only a single 
group of insects, but these are so anomalous in structure, 

680. What oi the diagram on this page ? 



382 ZOOLOGY. 

that it is not merely impossible to associate them with any 
other order, but it is even difficult to assign their proper 
place in the class. They are all of small size, none being 
known to exceed a quarter of an inch in length ; and they 
are all parasitic, in the larva state, upon the bodies of 
wasps and bees. The chief peculiarity of the adult in- 
sect consists in the very great development of the posterior 
segment of the thorax, which constitutes the greatest part 
of the trunk, the anterior segments being mere rings, and 
the abdomen very small. From this segment there pro- 
ceeds a pair of wings, which are large, membranous, di- 
vided by longitudinal nerves, and folded lengthwise like a 
fan. Of the anterior wings, usually proceeding from the 
middle segments of the thorax, there are no traces, except 
a pair of curious organs which have been termed pre-ba- 
Icmcers. These in form and substance might be compared 
to very small elytra, narrow, and somewhat club-shaped. 
This is the only instance in which, where one pair of 
wings only is present, it is the anterior pair that is unde- 
veloped. 

643. From the arrangement of the parts of the mouth, 
these insects art 1 usually placed among the Mandibulata ; 
but no oral aperture has been discovered, nor have thev 
been ascertained to take any nourishment during their 
imago state, which is of very short duration. The larvae, 
which are destitute of feet, are found in no other situation 
than beneath the scales of the abdomen of some species 
of the bee and wasp tribe. No mouth has been discovered 
in them ; and it is believed that they obtain their nourish- 
ment by absorption of the juices that surround them, 
through the skin — a mode of alimentation to which no- 
thing correspondent is known in animals so high in the scale. 
The larvae undergo both changes in the same situation ; 
so that after the perfect insect has escaped, the larva-skin 
remains in its original place, and the pupa-case is found 
crumpled up at the bottom of it. No distinction of sex 
has yet been detected ; and it is uncertain when and how 
the eggs are deposited in the bodies of the animals on 



681. Describe thin tenth order. 



WINGLESS INSECTS APHANIPTERA. 3$3 

which the larvae prey. This singular group is one, there- 
fore, particularly open to investigation. It seems pretty 
universally diffused, but has hitherto been chiefly studied 
in Britain. 

WINGLESS INSECTS. 

(544. Besides the foregoing orders, which constitute the 
true Insects, three others must be included in the class on 
account of the correspondence in their general structure, 
although they present only one or neither of the two cha- 
racters which have been stated to distinguish it — the pre 
sence of wings in the perfect state, and the metamorphosis. 
These three orders are — the Aphaniptera, or Flea tribe, 
which have their rudiments of wings, and undergo a meta- 
morphosis ; the Parasita, or Louse tribe, which is entirely 
destitute of wings, and undergoes no metamorphosis, but 
agrees with the true Insect in having only six legs ; and 
the Thysanoijra, including the Spring-fails, in which 
there are appendages to the abdomen, representing the 
legs of the posterior segments, so that these may be re- 
garded as approaching the Myriapoda. 

Order IX. — Aphaniptera. 

645. This order contains only one family, the Pulicidjs. 
or Flea tribe, all of which are insects of minute size, and, 
like the Diptera (to which they are perhaps most nearly 
allied), of suctorial habits. Their larvae come forth from 
the egg in the form of minute worms, possessing conside- 
rable activity, and feeding upon animal matter, a provision 
of which seems to be formed for them by the parent. They 
afterwards enclose themselves in a small cocoon of silk, 
which is often covered with dust, and in this they undergo 
their change into the pupa state. In their perfect state, 
the rudiments only of wings are visible, in the form of little 
scales, attached to the second and third segments of the 
body, in which there is no proper distinction of the thorax 
and abdomen. The habits of the common fleas of this 



What of ihe three voders i>f wingless insects ? 



384 ZOOLOGY. 

country are well known ; but there is a West Indian spe- 
cies, which, though of minuter size, is still more obnoxious. 
This is the pulex penetrans, commonly known as the 
chigoe, or jigger. It chiefly attacks the naked feet, buries 
itself deeply in the skin, and then deposits there an im- 
mense number of eggs. The larvae of these, when hatched, 
produce great irritation ; and severe sores, from which 
death has sometimes resulted, often follow. These can 
only be prevented by extracting the animal, with its bag 
of eggs (consisting of the enormously distended abdomen), 
as soon as a slight but peculiar itching gives notice of its 
presence. 

Order XII. — Parasita. 

646. The insects of this order, the Louse and its allies, 
are regarded with the greatest disgust, by the common 
consent of civilized man, because their presence on the 
body is an indication of a gross want of cleanliness of 
habit. Most of the lower animals, however, are infested 
with one or more species, from the attacks of which they 
are unable to defend themselves ; and man is subject to a 
peculiar disease, which seems very much to favour their 
production. Their generations succeed each other very 
rapidly. So constantly are the different species, which 
are very numerous, restricted to particular animals, that 
they are named from the species they infest ; and it has 
been even proposed to employ the identity of difference 
of species in the louse appearing on two animals, the iden- 
tity or difference of whose species might be doubtful (as 
the dog and wolf, or the different races of men), as a test 
of the latter. But this is straining the general law too far, 
since there are several animals which support more than 
one species. The Parasita are almost entirely destitute of 
eyes. 

Order XIII. — Thysanoura. 

647. In the insects of this order there is a remarkable 
diversity of structure, especially in regard to the mouth. 

68^. Describe the flea tribe. 
684. Describe the twelfth order. 




ORDER THYSANOURA. 385 

Some of them possess as complex an oral apparatus as the 
mandibulate insects ; whilst in others there is scarcely a 
perceptible opening. The same is the case with regard 
to the eyes, these organs being fully developed in some, 
and almost rudimentary in others. The order contains 
two families. In the first, the LepismidtE, the abdomen 
is furnished on each side with a row of movable appen- 
dages like false legs, and is terminated by long-jointed 
bristles, of which three are more remarkable. These 
little insects leap very well; some 
frequent stony places, whilst an- 
other is found in sugar, and is 
known as the sugar-louse. In the 
Podurid,e, the appendages to the 
sides of the abdomen are wanting ; 
but the extremity of it is prolonged Podura Villosa - 

into a forked tail, by which these insects can execute very 
surprising leaps ; this, when in inaction, is applied against 
the belly. From this conformation they are popularly 
known under the name of Spring-tails. Some species 
are found upon trees and plants, others beneath stones, 
and some have been seen on the snow itself at the time 
of a thaw. Many, residing upon the earth or in sandy 
places, unite into numerous societies, and resemble at a 
distance a small quantity of gunpowder. The scales of 
the insects of both these families are extremely beautiful 
microscopic objects ; those of the latter require a very high 
power and good adjustment to exhibit their delicate mark- 
ings ; and hence are employed as test-objects. 

685. What of the next and last order ? 

686. What different species are named ? 

687. Describe this distinct class. 

688. How are they distinguished from insects t 



386 ZOOLOGY. 



CLASS VII— ARACHNIDA. 

648. The class of Arachnidae, including the Spiders 
and their allies, was for a longtime confounded with that 
of Insects, and has been only recently separated. The 
characters which they present are perfectly distinct from 
those either of Insects on the one hand or of Crustacea on 
the other ; nevertheless they present numerous relations 
with both those groups. In regard to their general com plex- 
ity of structure, they are probably to be considered supe- 
rior to either ; but in the development of those locomotive 
and instinctive powers, which are so peculiarly character- 
istic of the Articulated series of animals, they are deci- 
dedly inferior to Insects, to which, in this point of view, 
the highest rank must be accorded. 

649. The Arachnida may be distinguished from Insects 
by the absence of any division between the head and 
thorax ; and the compound mass thus formed is termed 
the cephalo-thorax. Again, Insects in their mature state 
are always provided with six legs and no more : the Arach- 
nida have eight of these members. Moreover, their eyes 
are not compound, but more resemble those of higher ani- 
mals. From Crustacea they are separated by the softness 
of their bodies (in which respect, however, they are ap- 
proached by certain Macrourous Decapods termed Spider- 
Crabs), but still more completely by their exclusively 
atmospheric respiration. The organs by which this func- 
tion is performed vary in different tribes. In the Acari^ 
or Mites, and their allies, they resemble the tracheae of 
Insects, and are distributed through the body, whilst in 
the Spiders, Scorpions, &c, they consist of rounded cavi- 
ties, or air-sacs, into which the air is admitted by spiracles 
situated in the abdomen, and which are lined by a mem- 
brane plaited into numerous folds, which resemble gills, 
and lie in opposition like the leaves of a book. On this 



689. How are they subdivided ? 

690. What are their habits ? 



TRACHEARIA THE WATER-MITES. 387 

character is founded the subdivision of the class into pul- 
monary and tracheary Arachnida. 

650. The majority of the Arachnidce feed upon insects, 
which they seize alive, or upon which they fix them- 
selves, and from which they suck the juices. Others live 
as parasites upon the bodies of vertebrated animals. There 
are some, however, which are only found in flour, cheese, 
and upon various vegetables. These last, which mostly 
belong to the tracheary order, exhibit an affinity to in- 
sects, not only in their structure, but in their metamor- 
phosis ; for they undergo great changes after they come 
out of the egg, an additional pair of legs being often de- 
veloped, whilst in the others nothing else than a moult, or 
casting of the skin, occurs. 

Order I. — Trachearia. 

651. The Trachearia, being the most nearly allied to 
Insects, are naturally the first to be considered. This 
order contains several remarkable forms, of which the one 
best known is that of Acarid^e, or Mites, the majority of 
the species of which, however, are very 
minute, or almost microscopical. They 
are very extensively distributed ; some 
being wanderers under stones, leaves, the 
bark of trees, in the ground, or upon arti- 
cles of food ; whilst others subsist as para- A 
sites upon the skin and in the flesh of dif- (Mite) magnified. 
ferent animals, often greatly weakening them by their ex- 
cessive multiplication. There are some species which in- 
fest insects, especially the carrion beetles. Some of this 
tribe much resemble spiders inform and habits, as, for in- 
stance, the acarus telarius, the red spider of hothouses, 
which forms upon the leaves of various vegetables, espe- 
cially lime-trees, webs which injure them greatly. The 
I. roles, of which the various species, known under the 
name of Ticks, are so annoying to some animals, also be- 
long to this group. Although naturally much flattened in 
form, they acquire by suction a very large size, swelling 
out like a blown bladder; and they bury their suckers 
so completely in the flesh, that they cannot be detached 





388 ZOOLOGY 

without great difficulty. Some interesting aquatic spe- 
cies of this tribe exist. The 
legs are of a form adapt- 
ed for swimming, and are 
fringed with hairs to 
crease the resistance ; 
body is oval or round, 
some instances, these Water- 
Mites appear to pass through 

an inactive or pupa Condi- a? Hydrachna Globulus; 6, magnified; 
tion during the progress of c, young larva ; d, pupa. 

their metamorphosis; attaching themselves, in this state, to 
the bodies of aquatic insects. 

652. Besides the Acari, which form the principal part 
of this order, there is a curious group which has received 
the name of Pseudo- Scorpions, owing to their possession 
of a pair of large claws terminating in forceps, which, 
like those of the true Scorpions, are formed by an exces- 
sive development of the organs which in insects are termed 
palpi. There is also a very curious family, which some 
naturalists have separated into a distinct order, the Pycno- 
gonides ; these are distinguished by the absence of all spe- 
cial respiratory organs, and in their aquatic habits bear a 
strong resemblance to Crustacea. They are fou nd amongst 
marine plants, and under stones on the sea-beach. Their 
motions are remarkably slow, and they are said to live 
chiefly upon the animals of Bivalve Mollusca. 

Order II. — Pulmonaria. 

653. In this order the respiration is performed by means 
of air-sacs contained on the under side of the body, and 
opening externally by stigmata ; sometimes these aper- 
tures are eight in number, four on each side, but some- 
times four, or even only two. This diminution appears 
to indicate a gradual elevation in the character of the ap- 
paratus ; leading us from the diffused condition in which 
it exists in Insects, to the more concentrated form it pre- 
sents in higher animals. The Scorpions possess eight 

C91. Describe the mite familv. 



PULiMONARIA SCORPIONS. 389 

breathing pores; and thus approach nearer to the Tra- 
cheary Arachnida than do the Spiders. They offer them- 
selves next, therefore, to our consideration. 

654. The family of Pedipalpi is distinguished from 
that of Araneidse, principally by the great development of 
the palpi, which form extended arms, terminated by a 
pinceror claw. The entire body is clothed with a hard 
skin. In the Scorpions, which constitute the principal 
part of this family, the abdomen is very much prolonged, 
forming a sort of tail, which is terminated by a sting, fur- 
nished with a venomous secretion. The wound of this sting, 
although very painful, does not seem to be ordinarily dan- 




Scorpio Occitanus. 

^erous. A small species inhabits this country ; but it is 

between the tropics that the Scorpions attain their greatest 

development. They usually live on the ground, hiding 

themselves under stones or other bodies, among ruins, 

where such exist, and dark and cool places generally, even 

the interior of houses. They run quickly, and curve the 

tail over the back. They can turn it as an arm of 

offence or defence. They seize wood-lice and ground 

insects, upon which they feed, by means of their pincers ; 

they then prick them with their stings, and convey them 

to the mouth. They seem particularly fond of the eggs 

of spiders and insects. 

655. Besides the Scorpions, there is included in this 

family the tribe of Tarantula* Spiders, which seem inter- 

* These are not the animals known in the south of Europe under 
the name of Tarentula, receiving their designation from the city of 
Tarentum ; the latter are true Spiders. 

692. What various species are named ? 

693. How is the next order characterized ? 

694. What of the Scorpion family ? 



TOO ZOOLOGY. 

mediate in several respects to the Scorpions and true Spi- 
ders. They also possess the enlarged palpi, but the body 
has the general form of that of Spiders, and the spiracles 
are only four in number. These Arachnida inhabit only 
the hottest parts of Asia and America. They are unpos- 
sessed of a sting, and hence it may be supposed that their 
prey is of such a kind as not to require such a weapon for 
the mastery of it ; but scarcely any thing is known of 
their habits. In one species the body is prolonged almost 
like that of the scorpion. 

t;56. The other family of the pulmonary Arachnida 
consists only of the Spiders of various kinds, and is desig- 
nated Araneid,e. In these the palpi are not developed to 
any thing like the same degree as in the Scorpion tribe ; 
they rather resemble feet ; but the jaws are armed with 
sharp and hooked fangs, and are perforated near the points 
lor the emission of a poisonous secretion provided for 
the destruction of their prey. Nearly all of thetii are fur- 
nished with organs, situated at the hinder part of the body, 
for spinning a very delicate silken thread ; but the use to 
which it is to be applied varies in different species. In 
some it forms webs in which are entangled the insects on 
which they feed ; in others, it is employed to make a deli- 
cate silken tube, which lines their habitation; and in 
others, it is chiefly used for the fabrication of a sort of co- 
coon with which the eggs are surrounded. The instru- 
ments by which this thread is produced are little teat-like 
protuberances, termed spinnerets, of which four usually 
exist at the posterior extremity of the abdomen. Each of 
these, when highly magnified, is found to be perforated at 
its extremity by innumerable orifices of extreme minute- 
ness, through which is forced out a glutinous fluid, se- 
creted by glands within. This fluid soon hardens by expo- 
sure to the air; and thus each thread, delicate as it may 
seem, is composed of several hundred, of extreme minute- 
ness, coiled together, so that it possesses great strength in 
proportion to its diameter. 



695. What other species is described ? 

6%. What of the structure and habits of the Spider family ? 






PULMOXARIA THE FAMILY ARANEIDJB. 391 

657. No animals fall more universally under observa- 
tion than Spiders. We see them everywhere, fabricating 
their snares, or lying in wait for their prey, in our houses, in 
the fields, on trees, shrubs, flowers, grass, and in the earth ; 
and if we watch their proceedings, we may sometimes see 
them, without the aid of wings, ascend into the air, where, 
carried by their web as by an air-balloon, they can elevate 
themselves to a great height. Sometimes they assemble 
in very large numbers. The river Tagus was observed, 
in 1811, to be covered for more than half an hour by their 
webs ; and spiders have been sometimes carried by a light 
breeze to a considerable distance from land. Mr. Dar- 
win, in his recent voyage round the globe, noticed many 
thousands on the rigging of his ship, when sixty leagues 
from any shore. 

658. The Spiders are all extremely voracious in their 
habits, feeding only upon prey which they have them- 
selves killed. When they have got an insect between 
their claws, either by entrapping it in their web, or by 
their stealthy mode of pursuit, they plunge their poisoned 
mandibles into its body, and the bite is usually soon fatal. 
Sometimes, however, the insect has strength enough to 
resist its enemy, and to prevent the infliction of the fatal 
wound ; and as a prolonged struggle might be very injurious 
to the spider, on account of the softness of its body, it gene- 
rally retires from the contest if not speedily successful. 
Where its prey has been entangled in its web, however, 
the spider still further encloses it by a silken thread, and 
then retires until the insect has lost its strength by 
ineffectual struggles, when it soon despatches its victim. 
This family may be divided into two great groups, charac- 
terized by the number of pulmonary sacs and spiracles 
in each. 

659. In the first group, possessing two pairs of these 
organs, we find but one genus, My gale ; but this is a very 
extensive and important one. The Spiders of this genus 



697. What is said of their powers of locomotion ? 

698. What of their food ? 

699. How are they divided? 



392 



ZOOLOGY. 



do not form webs to entrap their prey, but they construct 
with their silk a sort of tube, which serves as their habita- 
tion, and in which they lie in wait for such animals as 
may come within their reach. It is asserted that the 
largest species, which is a native of South America, feeds 
not only upon insects, but even upon the young of hum- 
ming birds and other small animals. This, the M. avicu- 
laria, fixes its tube in the slits of trees, or amongst the 
leaves ; when their legs are spread out, they occupy a 
circular space of seven or eight inches. The web is 
white, of a very fine texture, semi-transparent like mus- 
lin. Other species of My gale burrow in the ground, and 
go under the name of Mining Spiders ; of these some are 
found in the south of Europe. They construct in dry 
shelving situations exposed to 
the sun, subterranean cylin- 
drical galleries, often two feet 
deep, and so tortuous that the 
traces of them are lost. These 
they line with a silken tube, 
forming at its entrance a 
movable lid, composed of silk 
and earth, attached to the silk- 
en lining by a sort of hinge ; 
and this is adapted, by its size, 
situation, and weight, to close 
the opening so precisely as Mygale Fodiens. 

scarcely to allow its entrance to be distinguished from the 
neighbouring soil. When the spider enters its retreat, or 
passes out of it, the door shuts of itself. The mygale 
spins a sort of cocoon round its eggs, enclosing a hundred 
or more ; they are hatched within it, and the young un- 
dergo their first changes before quitting it. 

(){')0. The Spiders possessing only two respiratory sacs 
and apertures belong to the genus Aranea, which contains 
a very large number of species of very dissimilar habits, 
and has been much subdivided. The first section com- 




700. Describe the first group, and its species. 

701. What oi the other genus and its divisions ? 



PULMOXARIA THE CLOTHO, ARGYRONETA, &C. 393 

prehends the Sedentary Spiders, which construct webs, or 
at last throw out webs, for the capture of their prey, and 
generally station themselves upon or near their webs, as 
well as near their eggs ; whilst the Wanderers, of which 
the second section is composed, do not spin webs, but lie 
in wait for their prey, or seize it by running. ; These are 
distinguished by differences in the arrangement of the 
eyes, which are placed close together on the front of the 
cephalo-thorax of the former ; but in the latter are extended 
lengthwise upon it, the space occupied by them being as 
long as it is broad. 

661. Each of these sections has been formed into nu- 
merous subdivisions, which it is not necessary to describe 
minutely. Amongst the spiders of the former, the clotho 
is remarkable for the curious habitation w T hicb it constructs 
for its young. It spins a kind of circular cocoon or tent, 
which it attaches to the under side of stones, or to cre- 
vices in rocks, by seven or eight points, ieaving festoons 
between these, the edges of which are free. At first, 
this consists of only two folds, but others are gradually 
added ; and, beneath them all, a lining of peculiarly soft 
texture is constructed for the reception of the eggs. The 
young remain in this for some time after they are hatched, 
and are supplied by the parent with food. The argyro- 
neta forms a winter retreat for itself beneath the water. 
It spins an oval silken chamber, open at the bottom like a 
diving-bell, which it attaches by cords to water-plants. It 
then carries down successive bubbles of air beneath its 
body, by crawling down their stems ; and these bubbles it 
transfers to its bell until it has filled it. It then takes up 
its abode in this cell, where it remains for the winter, first 
closing the mouth of the bell. The Epeirse are among 
the most remarkable for the strength of their webs ; some 
of the exotic species, which are celebrated for the variety 
of their forms, colours, and habits, spinning nets which 
are sufficiently strong to catch small birds, and even to an- 
noy man when he happens to come in the way of many 



702. What is said of the clotho and its web ? 

703. What other species is described ? 







;•::, 




394 



ZOOLOGY. 



together. Some species make a sort of cell in the vicinity 
of the web, which is sometimes composed of leaves brought 




Kpeira Diadema. 

together and attached by threads, and is sometimes a silk- 
en tube. 

6f>2. The Wanderers, or Hunting Spiders, often dis- 
play great cunning in the pursuit of their prey. There 
is a species, the aranea scenica, common in this country 
in summer, frequenting walls and windows exposed to the 
sun. It takes short leaps, stopping suddenly after a few 
steps, and raising itself upon its legs. When it discerns 
a fly, or especially a gnat, it approaches cautiously within 
leaping distance, when it darts upon it. It sometimes 
leaps perpendicularly from a great height, suspending 
itself Jby a thread, by which it can return. Many species 
construct silken nests among leaves, under stones, &c, 
into which they retire to take rest, to moult, and for pro- 
tection against the inclemency of the weather. To this 
group belongs the tartntula of Italy and the south of 
France, the bite of which is said to produce severe and 
sometimes fatal symptoms, hut which may be cured by 
music. It is certain, however, that these symptoms have 
been greatly aggravated by the imagination, and that 
it is only over the latter that music has any control. 



704. Describe the Wanderers, and their varieties. 



CLASS CRUSTACEA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 395 



CLASS VIII.— CRUSTACEA. 

663. The animals composing this group may be regard- 
ed as representing in the sea the Insects and Spiders of 
the land. Indeed, they were associated with those classes 
by Linnaeus, in his class of Insects ; but they are separated 
from both by very important characters. Their chief dis- 
tinction is in the breathing apparatus, which is adapted to 
aquatic and not to aerial respiration. Instead of the system 
of branching tubes which we find in Insects, or the lung- 
like cavities, which are a more concentrated form of the 
same structure, in the Arachnida, the Crustacea are fur- 
nished with fringes of gills like those of the Mollusca or 
Fishes, into which the blood is sent, as it were, out of the 
body, to meet the small quantity of air contained in the 
surrounding water. In the highest order of this class, the 
gills do not hang loosely from the body, but they are en- 
closed in a cavity having two orifices, through one of which 
a constant stream of water is introduced, that is ejected 
through the other by a curious mechanical contrivance. 
And in a few species of this order, there is a special pro- 
vision for keeping the gills moist when the animal leaves 
the water, out of which it can live for a considerable 
period. The best known of these are the land-crabs of the 
West Indian islands. 

664. It is not only by their aquatic respiration, how- 
ever, that the Crustacea are distinguished, but also by the 
calcareous nature of their integument. The shell, as it is 
commonly termed, is a secretion from the surface of the 
true skin, just as are the shells of Mollusca from their 
mantle. There is this important difference, however, be- 
tween the two, that whilst the latter is merely adapted to 
enclose loosely and to protect the general mass of the body, 
so that the locomotive appendages, when put in action, 
must be made to project beyond it, these being themselves 
unsupported by any hard skeleton, the former accurately 

705. What is characteristic of this class? 



C9(5 ZOOLOGY. 

fits not only the trunk but the extremities also, and, as in 
the other Articulata, is composed of a number of rings, 
more or less regular in form, and accurately jointed to- 
gether by an intervening membrane. 

665. As no addition to the edges of these rings would 
increase their diameter, some other means must be provided 
for enabling the size of the shell to keep pace with the in- 
creasing bulk of the body. This is effected by the peri- 
odical exuviation, or throwing-ofF of the old shell, and the 
formation of a new one. This change is preceded by 
evident illness on the part of the animal, which retires to 
its hiding-place at the time. The part of the shell en- 
closing the trunk splits usually at its under part, in such 
a manner as to allow the body to escape ; but the shell 
of the legs and claws remains entire, though the fleshy 
parts are entirely withdrawn from their interior. This is 
the more remarkable, as the bulk of the claw is much 
greater than the diameter of the joint through which it is 
thus made to pass, and often the disproportion is extreme. 
When the shell has been thus thrown off, the animal is 
entirely unprotected, and it carefully conceals itself from 
its enemies. Its soft skin is soon covered, however, with 
a sort of mucous exudation, which contains a large quan- 
tity of calcareous matter, and speedily hardens. The re- 
formation of the shell is facilitated by a store of carbonate 
of lime previously laid up in the stomach, where it forms 
the concretions commonly known as crabs' 1 eyes ; these 
disappear at this period, being absorbed, and then excreted 
on the surface of the skin. 

OiHh The power possessed by the Crustacea of repairing 
injuries, is very remarkable in beings of such high organi- 
zation. In the process of exuviation, it is not uncommon 
for a part of a claw to be lost, and this is very speedily re- 
placed. The second joint from the body is that at which 
the fracture most commonly occurs, and it is probably the 
only one from which the new growth can issue ; for, if 
the claw be broken off below that point, the animal itself 



706. What other peculiarity is named? 

707. What of exuviation, a. id its use ? 



CLASS CRUSTACEA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 3^)7 

effects the removal of the upper portion, either simply 
casting it off by violent muscular contraction, or striking it 
against some hard body. The same is the case when the 
claw has been accidentally lost in some other way ; and, 
accordingly, it is by no means uncommon to witness a 
great disproportion in the size of the two members, one 
being much smaller than natural, from its having been 
only recently produced. 

6f)7. The number of legs possessed by the Crustacea 
is greater than that of perfect Insects, being never less 
than four pairs, besides the pair of claws, which may be 
considered as metamorphosed legs. It is in the crab, 
lobster, crayfish, &c, that we find this small number ; 
and these belong to the highest order, the Decapoda, or 
ten-footed Crustacea. In front of these are some curious 
organs termed feet jaws, being intermediate in structure 
between these two kinds of appendages ; in some of the 
lower Crustacea these become true legs. And from the 
posterior part of the body there hang down certain ap- 
pendages, which are also true legs in the lower orders. 
In fact, the lowest Crustacea approach very closely to the 
Myriapoda in their general form and structure, differing 
chiefly in their aquatic mode of life ; the segments of the 
body are nearly equal, and are each furnished with a pair 
of legs. On the other hand, among the Decapods we find 
an approximation to the form both of Insects and Spiders 
— the lobster representing the one, and the crab the other. 
In the lobster we have a regular division into head, thorax, 
and abdomen, as in Insects ; and it is to the thorax alone 
that the locomotive appendages are attached, as in the per- 
fect state of the insect. There is no rudiment, however, 
of wings. As in the insect, we find that, where the force 
is concentrated in one part of the body, and the general 
movement is effected chiefly by the members, the seg- 
ments of that part are consolidated ; and, accordingly, the 
thorax of the lobster seems, until carefully examined, as 
if composed of a single piece. The segments of the ab- 
domen, however, are movable on each other ; and their 

708. What of the reproduction of daws \ 



398 



ZOOLOGY. 



motions assist in progression, the flattened tail serving as 
a fin by which the water is struck. In the crab, the head, 
thorax, and abdomen, are all consolidated into one mass ; 
but the division into segments is still evident on the under 
side. 

668. The Crustacea, in general, at the time of their first 
emersion from the egg, differ considerably from their adult 
forms, especially in the number of their legs. The changes 
which subsequently take place can scarcely be regarded as 
amounting to a metamorphosis like that of Insects, although 
in some instances they approach very near to it. In ge- 
neral, they principally consist in the modification which 
the appendages of the anterior segments undergo, these 
being sometimes converted into true jaws, sometimes into 
legs, and sometimes retaining their mixed character. In 
other cases, especially among the Decapods (as in the 
common ditch-prawn), we find an absolute change of mem- 
bers — those which the animal possessed, on its emersion 
from the egg, combining the characters of legs and respi- 
ratory organs, like the permanent members of the lower 
orders ; and these being replaced, after the skin has been 
several times thrown off, by true legs and separate respi- 
ratory appendages. Thus, the members of the different 
orders of Crustacea have a much greater resemblance to 
each other in their young state than subsequently ; for it 
is only in the progress of their growth that the characters 
which distinguish species and genera, and even orders, 
evolve themselves ; and hence there has been much con- 
fusion among naturalists regarding them. 

669. As in all other Articulata, the eyes of the Crusta- 
cea are compound. Their external coating is thrown off 
with the shell ; and this, when examined with the micro- 
scope, is seen to exhibit the division into minute lenses 
with beautiful distinctness. By its transparency tiie cast 
shell may be at once distinguished from one in which the 
animal has died. It is interesting to find this structure 
preserved in great perfection in a curious fossil tribe of thii 



709. What of their variety of structure ! 

710. What cha.igesiu they undergo I 



CLASS CRUSTACEA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. T,9^ 

class, the Trilobifes, the compound structure of whose 
eyes, mounted as they are upon short footstalks, is at once 
distinguishable with a magnifying glass, proving them to 
have been articulated animals, even if no other evidence 
existed to that effect. The Crustacea also possess organs 
of hearing, and perhaps also of smell. Their senses do 
not seem, however, to be acute ; and that of touch, which 
probably exists chiefly in the antennae, must be especially 
dull, in consequence of the hard casing which encloses the 
whole body. Their movements are ordinarily slow, and 
some are almost inert. 

670. In these respects, then, the Crustacea appear to 
partake in the characters of the Mollusca, to which they 
approximate in some degree through the Trilobites and 
their existing allies, which have an affinity with the Chi- 
tons. They also resemble the Mollusca in the high deve- 
lopment of the nutritive system. The stomach is furnished 
with a very complex apparatus of teeth, adapted to bruise 
and tear in pieces the alimentary matter submitted to their 
action ; and the liver, and other glands furnishing products 
which assist in digestion, are of large size, and of much 
greater complexity of structure than the corresponding 
parts in Insects. The heart is muscular; and the circu- 
lation of the blood takes place through a regular series of 
vessels, which convey it to the gills after it has been ren- 
dered impure by passing through the body, very much as 
in the Mollusca. The structure is greatly simplified, how- 
ever, in the lower forjns of this class, which includes a 
greater variety, in regard to degree of organization, than 
most others. There is also a vast variety in size ; some 
are by far the largest of the sub-kingdom to which they be- 
long, whilst others are very minute. The largest size is 
usually attained by those of inactive habits, which may be 
regarded as leading a vegetative kind of life, like that of 
the Mollusca ; whilst the most active species, such as the 
shrimp, are almost invariably small, like other Articulata. 



71 1 . What of the organs of the senses ? 

712. What fossil tribe is named ? 

713. What oi their digestive apparatus? 



/ 



400 ZOOLOGY. 

671. The attentive study of the geographical distribu 
tion of this class by a distinguished naturalist, M. Milne- 
Edwards, has enabled him to attain certain general prin- 
ciples, which will probably apply, with some modifications, 
to many other classes. The following are the most import- 
ant : — 1. Each species appears to have had its own cen- 
tral origin and limited distribution. Very few species are 
found to inhabit regions at a distance from one another; 
and those which are, are generally the best adapted for 
locomotion. 2. Though the number of individuals does 
not seem less in the northern than in tropical regions, it 
appears that the different forms and modes of organization 
tend to become more numerous as we approach the equa- 
tor. 3. These differences become not only more numer- 
ous but more important. The number of natural groups 
increases with the temperature ; and it is only in tropical 
regions that we meet with the extremes of dissimilarity 
of structure. 4. The species most elevated in the scale 
are deficient in polar regions, and their proportional num- 
ber augments as we approach the equator. 5. The hot- 
test regions are those in which we see the peculiarities 
of structure, characteristic of particular groups, carried to 
the highest degree. 6. Certain general forms are found 
to prevail in different regions, although the species are 
different ; thus, although the Crustacea of the tropical seas 
of India and of America are distinct as to their species, 
they have a great general analogy in their relations to 
each other, and in their differences from those inhabiting 
particular localities in colder regions. 

672. Owing to the great varieties of structure which 
this class includes, its division into orders appears very 
complex. Thirteen are established by M. Milne-Edwards ; 
the characters of which will now be generally stated. 
As many of them, however, contain but a few species, of 
which little is known, a more detailed account will be 
given of those only which possess more universal interest. 

67:5. The class Crusiacea may be separated, in the first 
instance, into two divisions. In one of these, including 

714. What of their geographical distribution ( 



CRUSTACEA. — CLASSIFICATION. 401 

the great bulk of the class, the month is furnished with 
organs specially destined for the prehension or division of 
the food. In the other, there are no special organs for the 
purpose, the bases of the neighbouring legs serving the 
purpose of jaws. This second division contains but one 
order, the Xyphosura, and this contains but one genus, 
the Limuhts, or King-Crab, which will hereafter be 
noticed in detail. The first division is then separated into 
two groups — one, the Maxillosa, having the mouth fur- 
nished with jaws ; the other, the Edentata, having the 
mouth prolonged in the shape of a sucker. These two 
groups are precisely analogous to those of Mandibulata 
and Haustelata among insects. The Edentata are divid- 
ed into three orders, according to the form of the extremi- 
ties. 

674. Araneiformes, in which the extremities are rod- 
like, long, and adapted for walking. 

675. Syphonostomata, in which the extremities are 
not adapted for walking, are partly formed into plates, and 
partly adapted for prehension. 

676. Lern^eiformes, in which the extremities are but 
little developed, and the body presents great variety of 
form. Most of these are parasitic upon other animals, 
especially fishes, to which they cling by means of hooks 
in which their rudimentary extremities terminate. 

677. The Maxillosa, containing by far the larger pro- 
portion, as well as themost highly organized forms, of the 
class, are again distributed into four sections, (i.) Pod- 
ophthalmia, in which the eyes are mounted upon footstalks 
and are movable. These have almost always branchiae, 
properly so called ; their feet are partly ambulatory, partly 
prehensile ; and the thorax is covered with a carapace or 
shield (like the upper shell of the turtles), which is formed 
by the great development of one of the rings, overlapping 
the rest, (n.) Edriophtalmia, in which the eyes are *e*- 
»i/e, or not mounted on a pedicle. The branchiae are not 
separate organs, being united with the extremities ; these 
are almost always seven on each side, and adapted fur 

715. How is this class divided and subdivided ? 



402 ZOOLOGY. 

walking. There is no carapace, (in.) Branchiopoda, in 
which there are no gills, but the anterior pairs of legs are 
flattened into plates, which are subservient to respiration. 
(iv.) Entomostraca, in which there are no branchiae, or 
any apparent organs to supply their place. The eyes 
are sessile, and commonly united into a single mass. 
These groups are again subdivided into nine orders, as 
follows : 

678. (i.) The Podophthalmia consist of the Decapoda, 
in which there are five pairs of thoracic extremities, and 
which have the gills enclosed in a special respiratory cavi- 
ty ; and the Stomapoda, which have six or eight pairs 
of thoracic extremities and external branchiae. 

679. (n.) The Edriophthalmia contain three orders — 
the Amphipoda, in which the thoracic members are sub- 
servient to respiration, and the abdomen well developed, 
and furnished with six pairs of limbs ; the L^modipoda, 
in which the abdomen is not developed ; and the Isopoda, 
in which the abdomen is well developed, and its members, 
which are similar in form to the rest, subservient to res- 
piration. It is this order which most resembles the My- 
riapoda. 

680. (in.) The Branchiopoda contain two orders — of 
which one, the Cladocera, has a carapace in the form 
of a bivalve shell, with five pairs of thoracic members; 
whilst in the other, the Phyllopoda, there is no carapace, 
and the extremities, which are formed for swimming, are 
more numerous, varying from eight to twenty-two. 

681. (iv.) The Entomostraca are also divided into two 
orders — the Colepoda, which have the body divided into 
distinct rings, but without carapace, and the appendages 
to the mouth in considerable numbers ; and the Ostra- 
poda, in which the body is without annular divisions, and 
entirely enclosed under a large shield having the form of 
a bivalve shell, the extremities being in very small num- 
ber. In some members of this division we find a very 
dose approximation to the higher Rotifera. 



716. Into what four sections are the Maxillosa divided ? 

717. What of the variety in these groups ? 



DECAPODA THE CRABS. 403 



Order I. — Decapoda. 



682. It is in this order that we find the highest gene- 
ral organization, the largest size, and the most varied ha- 
bits ; it is the one most useful to man, and most interesting 
to the naturalist. The lobsters, crabs, cray-fish, prawns, 
shrimps — in fact, nearly all the species that are ever used 
as food, belong to it. Their growth is slow, but they or- 
dinarily live a lon£ time. Their habits are mostly aquatic ; 
but none of them are killed at once by being withdrawn 
from the water ; and some of them pass the greatest part 
of their lives in air. They are naturally voracious and 
carnivorous ; the first pair of legs is usually transformed 
into a pair of powerful claws, by which they seize their 
food, and convey it to the mouth. This order contains 
three families — the Brachyoura, or short-tailed Decapods, 
to which the name of Crabs is commonly given ; the Ma- 
croura, or long-tailed, such as the lobster, cray-fish, &c. ; 
and the Anomoura, in which the abdomen is prolonged, 
but destitute of a shell, so that the tail is soft, and which 
inhabit the shells of Mollusca, in which they seek protec- 
tion. 

083. As illustrations of the structure and habits of the 
Brachyoura, the common Crabs will suffice ; but a pecu- 
liar tribe, that of the Land-Crabs, should be specially 
mentioned. These often live at a considerable distance 
from the sea, and even burrow underground. Their gills 
are kept moist by a kind of spongy structure in the inte- 
rior of the cavity which encloses them ; and from this a 
sufficient amount of fluid is secreted to prevent them from 
being dried up. Some species, though living on land, 
are confined to damp situations. Others, however, ordi- 
narily inhabit elevated regions, and migrate towards the 
sea once a year to deposit their spawn. All the grass 
through the Deccan (in Hindostan) was noticed by Bishop 
Heber to swarm with a small land-crab, which burrows in 
the ground, and runs with swiftness, even when encum- 



718. What of the first order and its species \ 

719. Describe the families niio which it u* divided. 






404 ZOOLOGY. 

bered with a bundle of food as large as itself; this food 
consists of grass, or the green stalks of rice. The same 
species has been found on table-lands 4000 feet above the 
sea ; and it is believed not to need migration for the pur- 
poses of reproduction. This migration is constantly no- 
ticed, however, in the West Indian species, which go 
down to the shore in large bodies, not allowing any obsta- 
cle to interfere with their progress. They are nocturnal 
in their usual habits, concealing themselves in their bur- 
rows during the day. 

684. The Macroura are distinguished not only by the 
length of their tail, but by having it expanded at the ex- 
tremity into a pair of fin-like processes, which afford valu- 
able assistance in swimming. This family is a very ex- 
tensive one, and contains the largest species of the whole 
class. One of these is the palinarus, known in this coun- 
try as the spiny lobster, which, when loaded with eggs, 
weighs twelve or fourteen pounds ; and the tropical spe- 
cies attain a much greater size. The cf ay-fish may be 
regarded as a fresh-water lobster, the structure of the two 
being closely allied. It hides itself under stones or in 
burrows, on the banks of rivulets and streams, whence it 
only comes forth in search of its food, which consists of small 
mollusca and fishes, the larvae of aquatic insects, and car- 
casses of animals floating in the water. The eggs, when 
laid, are attached under the abdomen of the female, where 
they are carried by her until hatched ; and the young, 
which are very soft at birth, take refuge beneath the tail 
of the parent for some days. The opossum-shrimp car- 
ries this kind of protection still further, having a mem- 
branous pouch between the thorax and legs, in which the 
eggs, and the young for some time after they are hatched, 
are protected. 

685. The Decapods of the family Anomoura are com- 
monly known by the name of Hermit-Crabs, from their re- 
markable habit of seeking protection in the empty shells 
of molluscs. The shells they seem to prefer for this pur- 



7 20. What of the tribe of Land- Crabs ? 

721. What of the second family, and its varieties ? 



ORDUK STOMAPODA. 405 

pose are those belonging to the family Troc hoi else. The 
abdomen or tail is inserted into the upper part of the cavi- 
ty, of which, after a time, it assumes the perfect form, so 
that, when withdrawn, it presents all the markings of it. 
The thorax and head occupy the lower part of the spire ; 
and the mouth is closed by one of the claws, which is usu- 
ally larger than the other, and serves as an operculum 
when the animal is withdrawn. When they outgrow the 
habitations they have selected, they quit them and go in 
search of others ; and they try one shell after another, by 
slipping the tail into it, until they have found one whose 
size and form suit them. Those which ordinarily live 
on the shore feed on dead fish and other garbage ; but 
there are some which ascend trees in search of vegetable 
food. There is one genus, Birgus, much larger than the 
rest, which hides itself in crevices of rocks, or forms bur- 
rows in the earth, instead of seeking a shell ; and one 
species of this, which inhabits the islands of the Poly- 
nesian archipelago, ordinarily lives at the roots of cocoa- 
nut and other trees, which it climbs for the sake of their 
nuts, and from these it extracts the soft interior with great 
dexterity. 

Order II. — Stomapoda. 

686. This is a much less extensive order, and the spe- 
cies it contains are entirely marine, and mostly con- 
fined to tropical climates, on which account comparatively 
little is known of them. Some of them have powerful 




Squilla Mantis. 

claws, which they use for seizing their prey in the same 
manner as the Orthoptera among insects ; so that these 



722. Describe the hermii crabs, and their habits. 



406 ZOOLOGY. 

have received the name of Sea Mantes. The accompany- 
ing figure shows one of the most characteristic forms of 
the order, which is abundant in the Mediterranean. The 
gills are there seen to be affixed, in separate tufts, to the 
abdominal appendages. 

Order III. — Amphipoda. 

687. This is an extensive order, in regard both to the 
number of species contained in it, and the amount of indi- 
viduals which are sometimes seen collected together. The 
greater number of them are marine, but some are found in 
brooks and reservoirs ; all, however, are more or less aquatic 
in their habits. They are of small size, and swim and leap 
with agility. The best known British species is the san i- 
hopper, which burrows in the sand, and which, unlike the 
greater part of the order, seldom enters the water. An 
animal not very dissimilar, called pernys by the French, is 
abundant on the coast of La Rochelle, where it forms exten- 
sive burrows in the sand. It keeps up a continual war 
with the nereids and other marine Annelida, which take up 
their abode in the same place. At the rising of the tide, 
they may be observed to assemble in myriads, beating the 
mud with their long antennae in order to discover their 
prey. If they discover any Annelida, though often ten or 
twenty times larger than themselves, they unite together 
to attack and devour it. They also attack fishes, mollusca, 
and dead bodies on the shore ; but they are themselves 
the prey of other fishes and of shore-birds. 

Order IV. — Laemodipoda. 

688. Of this small order, one of the 
most interesting and characteristic species 
is the cyamus, commonly called the whale- s^\ 
louse, from its infesting the Cetacea as a 
parasite. Sometimes these creatures are 
so abundant on the surface of whales, 
that the individuals they infest may be 
recognised at a distance by the white 
colour these parasites impart to them. Cyamus Batanwmii 




723 What of the second, fliir%i and lourtij udtfr» ? 



isoronA — ci.aT)oct:ra. 407 

Older V. — Isopoda. 

689. These Crustacea not only resemble Myripaoda in 
external form, but in many parts of their internal structure. 
The heart, for example, is not a short muscular cavity, but 
has the form of a long vessel lying upon the intestine. 
The females carry the eggs under the front of the body ; 
and these are either defended by scales, or in a pouch or 
membranous sac, which is opened in order to allow the 
young ones to escape. The greater number live in water ; 
but many species, such as the common wood-louse, are 
inhabitants of the land. Having no special apparatus, 
however, for keeping the respiratory surface moist, they 
can only exist in damp places. The oniscus, or wood- 
louse, frequents dark and concealed places, such as cellars, 
caves, chinks in walls, or hollows under stones. It feeds 
upon decaying vegetable and animal matter, and only 
comes forth from its retreat in damp weather. It has the 
power of rolling itself completely into a ball. 

Order VI. — Cladocera. 

690. The Crustacea composing this and the three fol- 
lowing orders are of very small size, so that the details of 
their structure can only be examined with the microscope. 
They mostly inhabit fresh waters, and are in almost con- 
stant motion. A characteristic example of this order is 
the common dap h ma pulex, or water-flea, which may be 
found during the summer in almost every pond, and is 
recognised by its very rapid and sudden movements, re- 
sembling the leaps of the animal after which it is named. 
These are principally executed by a pair of large branched 
antennae, which serve as oars. They feed principally 
on vegetable matter, but also on animalcules. They are 
found at the surface in cloudy days, and in the mornings 
and evenings at other times ; but when the middle of the 
day is hot, they seek the depths of the water. The eggs 
are hatched in a bag under the body of the parent. 



724. What of the structure and habits of the fifth order ? 

725. Describe the sixth order 



409 



ZOOLOGY. 



Order VII.— Phyllopoda. 

691. To this order, which is characterized by the pro- 
longed form of the body, and the flattening of the extre- 
mities which adapts them for swimming, belongs a large 




Branchipus Stagnalis. 

number of species, whose movements are generally very 
regular and equable. The branchipus, one of the most 
characteristic examples, is found often in great numbers, 
in small puddles, and most abundantly after heavy rain. 
The eggs are capable of being dried up without injury, 
and are hatched soon after being moistened. To this or- 
der belongs the artemia salina, or brine-shrimp, which is 
found in salt-pans when the evaporation is considerably 
advanced. Its metamorphoses are very remarkable, and 
the aspect and movements of the perfect animal are very 
beautiful and interesting. 



Order VIII. — Copepoda. 

(392. The animals of this and the next order are com- 
monly termed monoculous, from the two 
eyes being united into one mass. In their 
general habits they agree with the former. 
The cyclops is an interesting species, very 
common in the ponds and ditches of this 
country. The female has an oval sac on 
each side of the tail, in which the eggs are 
carried. She is able to produce ten broods 
in the course of three months; and as these gSt,iMgiJfied 
are speedily able to reproduce themselves, it 




726. How is the sevemh order distinguished ? 

727. What is remarkable in the eighth order ? 



0STRAP0DA THE CYPRIS. 409 

has been calculated that, in a year, 4,442,189,120 young 
may be the progeny of one individual. The majority of 
the animals of this order swim with the back downwards, 
darting about with great agility and moving backwards or 
forwards with equal ease. In the absence of animal mat- 
ter, on which they usually feed, they attack vegetable sub- 
stances. 

Order IX. — Ostrapoda. 

693. In habit and general character, the animals of 
this order, of which the common Cypris of our ponds is 
an example, closely resemble those of the last ; but their 
bodies are enveloped in a sort of bivalve shell. They 
swim, like the Daphnise, by means of the prolonged an- 
tennae, which spread at their extremities into tufts of fila- 
ments. The Cyprides appear to have been extremely 
abundant in former epochs of the earth's history, for their 
remains are now found in such numbers, as, in spite of 
their individual minuteness, to form extensive beds. A 
thin transparent section of the Sussex marble, for exam- 
ple, shows that almost the entire mass is composed of an 
aggregation of these minute animals, interspersed among 
the shells of the Paludinse which it contains ; and what 
appears to be the inorganic calcareous matter binding the 
whole together, is probably derived from the decomposi- 
tion of a part of these delicate envelopes, which notwith- 
standing their transparency, contain a considerable amount 
of it. 

694. The animals of the division Edentata are nearly 
all parasitic. In their general organization they are the 
most imperfect of all Crustacea ; some of them approach- 
ing the higher Entozoa, whilst others have a resemblance 
to the lowest Arachnida. The various species of these 
orders, which need not be more minutely particularized, 
infest, more or less, almost all marine animals. 

695. There now only remains the remarkable order. 



728, Describe ihe ninih order, and 'heir antiquity. 
kViiai d its ting iiioUee he division Etleiuaia ? 



410 



ZOOLOGY. 



Xyphosura, separated from all the rest by 
the absence of any special organs for con- 
veying food into the mouth. It receives its 
name from the sword-like prolongation of the 
carapace, which is used as a weapon by the 
natives of the regions in which the animals 
exist. The Limuli, or King-crabs as they 
are commonly termed, are peculiar to the 
East Indies (abounding in the neighbour- 
hood of the Molluccas) and the coast of Ame- 
rica. They sometimes attain the length of 
two feet. Their legs are very short, not 
extending beyond the margin of the shell. 
The anterior ones seem to assist in conveying food tr 
the mouth, and the posterior are modified for respiration. 
696. Near the Limuli should probably be placed the 
remarkable group of Trilobites, which are at present only 




Llmulus 
Polyphemus. 




Asaphus Expansus. 



Same rolled up. 



known in a fossil state, but which were very abundant in 
former epochs of the earth's history, especially at the 
transition epoch, intervening between the formation of 
the primary rocks and the deposition of the coal series. 
They are, therefore, among the most ancient animals whose 
remains are preserved to us. They abound in the Dudley 



730. What of the King-crabs, and their species ? 

731. What of the fossils named ? 



CLASS MYRIAPODA,. 411 

limestone, along with Encrinites and Mollusca. In their 
external aspect there is a distinct evidence of their articu- 
lated character, in the division into regular segments ; and 
this evidence is confirmed by the character of the eyes 
already noticed. The body is divided along its whole 
length by two furrows, into three lobes ; whence the 
name given the group. There can be no doubt, from the 
character of the animals with whose remains it is found, 
that the trilobite was an inhabitant of the water ; and as 
its integument was evidently hard and articulated, it 
must have been a Crustaceous animal. But no remains, 
or only very slight rudiments, of feet can be detected ; 
whence it probably passed its life adhering to rocks, like 
limpets, or their allied species the chitons, w T hich it r^f 
sembles in the division of its shell and in the power of roll- 
ing itself up. 



CLASS IX.— MYRIAPODA. 

697. The class Myriapoda is the lowest, in the de- 
scending scale, in which we meet with articulated mem- 
bers, or distinct jointed legs, as well as with an articulated 
body. These are intermediate in their conformation be- 
tween the more highly organized Jegs^ of Insects and the 
simple bristle-like appendages possessed by some of the 
Annelida; and this is exactly the place to which we 
should refer the animals of this class, from a regard to 
their general structure. For, on looking at the form of 
their bodies, we observe that they are distinguished by 
an uniformity in the character of the segments, nearly as 
great as that which prevails in the Annelida ; so that an 
iu/us might almost be likened to an earthworm provided 
with a stiffened integument and with slender legs. 
Whilst, on the other hand, the adaptation of the respira- 
tory organs to breathe air with regularity and energy, the 
increasing complexity of the apparatus of mastication, 

732. What is sr<id of these fossil species ? 

733. Describe the ninth class-. 



412 ZOOLOGY. 

the possession of distinct eyes, and many other characters, 
indicate their affinity with Insects — in which class, in- 
deed, some naturalists comprehend them. 

698. Most persons are familiar with the common forms 
of this class — the Centipedes (hundred legs) and the Mil- 
lepedes (thousand legs) ; and a minute description of them 
is therefore unnecessary. On examining any of these 
animals, the following points will be observed. The co- 
vering of the body is firm, and of a somewhat horny cha- 
racter, resembling that of many insects. The division 
into segments is very distinct ; a flexible membrane being 
interposed between each pair of firm rings or plates. This 
is obviously required by the condensation of the skin ; 
since, if it were otherwise, the body would not have the 
power of bending in any direction. The legs are covered 
by the same kind of integument, and are jointed in a simi- 
lar manner; each terminates in a single claw or hooU. 
No division of the body into distinct regions, like those 
which are so evident in the true Insects, can be observed ; 
but, on the contrary, the segments are nearly equal along 
its whole length, and each is provided with one or two 
pairs of legs. The first segment, or head, is furnished 
with eyes formed upon the same general plan as those of 
insects; and also with a pair of long jointed appendages 
termed av'fnnx, which are probably organs of touch. On 
the side or under surface of the animal may be seen a row 
of minute pores, a pair usually existing on each segment, 
which are the apertures for the admission of air to the 
respiratory organs. The different parts of the nervous 
system are repeated in a similar manner, a pair of ganglia 
being found in every division of the body. 

t>99. The Myriapoda may be divided into two orders, 
the Iulid,e, or Millepedes, and the ScolopendriDjE, or 
Centipedes. 

Order 1. — Iulida?. 
700. The Iulidae, consisting of animals bearing a gene- 
ral resemblance to the iulus or common millepede, are the 



734. What familiar forms are cited ? 

735. How is this class divided \ 




MYR1AP0DA THE 1I T LTD T.. 413 

most nearly allied to the Annelida, both in external form 
and in the arrangement of the several organs. The inlns 
Urre.-t is, or gaily worm, is a species often found concealed 
under stones, or beneath the bark of decaying timber. Its 
body is long and cylindrical, and is composed of between 
forty and fifty hard rings, which, except at the head and 
tail, diner but little from one another. Each segment 
gives origin to two pairs of small legs, which arise close to 
the middle line along the under surface of the body. 
These are scarcely large or 
strong enough to support its 
weight, so that the animal 
moves but slowly, and seems 
rather to glide or crawl than to 
walk. When at rest, the body 
is rolled up in a spiral form ; lulus. 

and the feet, being concealed in the concavity of the spire, 
are protected from injury ; whilst the firmness of the rings 
of the body enables them to resist considerable pressure. 
These animals are furnished with another means of de- 
fence, for they are capable of emitting a fluid of very dis- 
agreeable odour from a series of orifices which may be 
seen on each side of the body. These orifices have been 
mistaken for the spiracles or respiratory pores, which are 
situated along the under surface. The annexed figure 
represents the iulus, with the body coiled up, the front 
of the body unrolled, and the antenna magnified. 

701. The mouth of the Ivlidse is furnished with a pair 
of stout horny jaws, moving horizontally, and furnished 
with sharp toothed edges ; and by means of these, they 
are enabled to divide with facility the portions of decaying 
vegetable matter upon which they usually feed. These 
animals are very harmless to man, not being possessed of 
any poisonous organs ; and they may be regarded as posi- 
tively benefiting him, by the removal of substances the 
decay of which would be noxious. The common iulas of 
this country seldom much exceeds an inch in length, but 

736. Describe the first order. 



414 



ZOOLOGY. 



there is a South American species (/. maxlmus) which 
attains the length of seven inches. 

702. The lulicUe deposit a large number of eggs in the 
ground. The young, when it comes forth, is nearly or 
al'ogether destitute of legs, resembling a short worm, of 
which the segments are few and indistinct. In a few days 
it changes its skin, and the division into segments then be- 
comes apparent ; in this change it acquires three pairs of 
legs, which are situated upon the three anterior segments of 
the body, the remainder being destitute of any appendages. 
Some days afterwards, the skin is again cast, and the 
young iulus then acquires seven pairs of legs. By suc- 
cessive changes of this kind, the species on which these 
observations were made (by Savi) obtained at the fifth 
moult forty -three pairs of legs, disposed on thirty seg- 
ments, and at ihe final change the number of segments is 
increased to thirty-nine. These changes cannot be re- 
garded as analogous to the metamorphosis of insects, in 
which the tendency is to diminish the number of legs and 
to concentrate the s*. gments ; but they rather resemble 
the annual exuviation of the skin in serpents, which 
correspond so closely in their general aspect with the 
Iulidae. 

Order II. — Scolopendridae. 

703. The animals composing the order Scolopendridae 
may be distinguished from the Iulidae by the greater de- 
velopment of the legs, by the diminution in their number, 
and in that of the segments, and by the flattened form of 
the body. The segments, instead of being composed of 
rings, are formed of two firm plates, covering the upper 
and under surfaces of the body, and united by a mem- 
brane at the sides. By this arrangement great freedom 
of motion is given to the body as well as to the legs ; and 
these animals are not only enabled to run with facility, 
but, in spite of the breadth of their bodies, to wind their 
way through very tortuous passages. They lurk in the 



737. What is ^ad of its s'; u lure and hahrs ? 
73tt. What periodical changes do ihey undergo? 



MYKIAPODA — THE SCOLOPENDRIDvE. 415 

same dark and moist situations as the Iulidae, but they 
prey upon the insects which frequent these, and upon de- 
caying animal rather than vegetable matter. 

704. Of the carnivorous propensities of the Scolopen- 
dridae, the structure of the mouth affords sufficient evidence. 
It is provided, not only with a pair of horny jaws resem- 
bling those of insects, but with a pair of strong sharp 
claws, formed by an enlargement of the second pair 
of legs, which are perforated at the tip with a minute 
aperture through which a venomous fluid is probably in- 
stilled into the wounds made by them. Small insects 
seized in these claws are seen to die very speedily ; and 
in warm countries the bite of the large species of Centi- 
pede is a source of great irritation to man, being reputed 
more injurious than that of the Scorpion, though it is sel- 
dom fatal. The application of ammonia is the most effec- 
tual remedy for the pain, as well as for the constitutional 
effects of the bite. 

705. The last pair of legs, also, undergoes some modifica- 
tion in this order, being directed backwards so as to form a 
kind of double tail, and not being used for walking except 
when the animal is moving backwards. The spiracles 
may be observed on the sides of the body, disposed regu- 




a Lithobius Forcipus ; b Geophilus Longicornis. 

larly like those of insects. The antennae are longer and 
more perfectly formed than those of the Iulidae ; and their 
eyes are more highly organized. Altogether, their struc- 
ture is evidently adapted to a more active mode of life 



739. How is the next order distinguished ? 

740. What is peculiar in their structure and habits ? 

741. What ie ilio i«m«dv lor their i>i • ( 



413 ZOOLOGY. 

than that to which the first order is destined ; and we 
have here an opportunity of remarking the difference, 
which becomes still more striking in higher classes, in the 
general conformation of animals of the same group, accord- 
ing as they are to be adapted to vegetable food always 
within their reach, or to search for and prey upon living 
animals. 

70(5. The European species of this order seldom ex- 
ceed two or three inches in length ; but they present them- 
selves by no means unfrequently. Like the Iulidae, they 
frequent dark places, hiding themselves under stones, the 
bark of trees, in the ground, and especially in over-ripe 
fruit, which is likely to attract insects. In tropical climates, 
however, they attain a much larger size, and abound still 
more. Centipedes of the length of fifteen inches have 
been brought to this country; and it is stated by Ulloa that 
at Carthagena they have been seen exceeding a yard in 
length and five inches in breadth, and that the bite of 
these is mortal. It is doubtful, however, whether this 
statement may be relied on. 

707. One of the British species, the geophilus elecfricus, 
deserves especial notice, on account of its power of emit- 
ting a phosphorescent light by night, nearly as bright as 
that of the glow-worm. It is about three-quarters of an 
inch long, of a dirty buff colour, with a black line down 
the back. During the day it resides under stones and in 
moss, and at night it is often seen on the footpaths. It 
leaves a strong light upon the fingers when handled. There 
is another luminous species, the scolopendra phosphoren, 
which is recorded by Linnaeus to have fallen from the air 
upon a vessel in the Indian Ocean, a hundred miles from 
land. 



742. What species are named ? 



CLASS ANNELIDA. 417 



CLASS X— ANNELIDA. 

708. The class of Annelida is the lowest in which the 
articulated structure is distinctly manifest. It is composed 
of animals having a worm-like body, without true jointed 
legs ; and marked by transverse lines that divide it into 
a succession of rings or segments, which, except the first 
and last, differ little from each other but in size. Many 
of them are remarkable for the red colour of their blood ; 
and, on account of this character, they have been regarded 
as approaching nearer to the vertebrated sub-kingdom 
than any other class of articulated animals. This is not 
universally observed, however, for in some species the 
blood has a greenish tint, and in others it is nearly colour- 
less, as in Invertebrata in general. The body is usually 
soft and flexible, the rings being possessed of little firm- 
ness, and no internal skeleton of any description being 
present. It is not only flexible, but capable of great alter- 
ation in its dimensions as may be seen in the common 
earth-worm or leech. 

709. The greater part of this class are solely inhabit- 
ants of the water, and are provided with external ap- 
pendages for exposing the blood to its influence, which 
are analogous in function to the gills of fishes, but which 
are often distributed over the whole surface, and are also 
concerned in locomotion. It may be regarded as the 
regular form of these animals to possess such appendages 
upon every segment. But not unfrequently the body is 
enclosed in a tube, and then the gill-tufts are collected in 
the neighbourhood of the head, where they may be pro- 
truded from its opening. The earth-worm and a few 
other species are adapted to live on land ; and they have 
a series of air-sacks arranged along the interior of the 
body on each side, opening externally by a small 
orifice, of which a pair may be seen on each seg- 
ment. 

743. Describe this tenth class. 



4 IS ZOOLOGY. 

710. The first segment, which may be termed the head, 
contains the mouth, sometimes provided with a formidable 
apparatus of jaws; and it is also generally furnished with 
eyes, and with variously-shaped tentacula, which are ap- 
parently instruments of touch. The last segment is oc- 
casionally destitute of the appendages with which the 
rest are provided ; and these are replaced by a sucker, 
which is of great assistance in locomotion. 

711- The class is subdivided into orders by the differ- 
ences in general conformation and habits exhibited by the 
tribes which compose it, and especially by the character 
and distribution of the respiratory organs. The first order, 
Dorsibranchiata, includes those which have the branchial 
appendages or gill-tufts disposed regularly along the body, 
sometimes extending its entire length, sometimes restricted 
to the segments about the middle. This order has been 
also denominated Errantia, from the active habits of the 
animals comprehended in it. In the next, Tubicola, we 
find worm-like animals inhabiting fixed and permanent re- 
sidences like the Mollusca. Sometimes they are enclosed 
in shelly tubes formed by an exudation from their own 
surface, and sometimes in casings constructed by the ag- 
glutination of foreign substances. The disposition of the 
gill-tufts around the head is the principal character which 
distinguishes the animals themselves from those of the 
first order. In the third order, Terricola, the body is 
destitute of all external appendages, except some minute 
and almost imperceptible bristles ; for the respiratory 
organs are here developed internally, the animals being 
formed to crawl upon the ground instead of swimming 
through the water. And in the last, Suctoria, the body 
is destitute even of these bristles, but is furnished 
with a sucker at each end of the body. The two 
latter groups were regarded by Cuvier as forming one 
order 



744. What of their structure and habits? 

745. How are they divided ? 



SYLLIS MOMLARIS SEA-CENTlPEDES. 



419 



Order I. — Dorsibranchiata. 

712. Of the foregoing orders, the Dorsibranchiata ap- 
pear, on the whole, to possess the most complex structure, 
as well as the most varied faculties, and they also exhibit 
the most characteristic forms of the class. The head is 
almost always distinct from the body, and furnished with 
highly-developed organs of sensation, as well as with com- 
plex instruments of mastication. These marine worms 
do not attain any considerable dimension upon our own 
coasts, rarely exceeding a few inches in length ; but in 
tropical climates some species are found of comparatively 
gigantic proportions, having their bodies composed of 
400 or 500 segments, and occasionally measuring four 
feet from one end to the other. Their general form will 
be seen in the annexed figure, which represents the syllis 




Syllis Monilaris, with an enlarged representation of one of its appendages. 

monilaris ; and the enlarged view of one of the lateral 
appendages will show the parts of which it consists. In 
the centre there is a tuft of delicate bristles, which may 
be regarded as the chief organ of respiration, the blood 
being sent into them to be exposed to the air contained in 
the water ; above and below there are separate bristles 
much more elongated, of which the lower one has a joint- 
ed character ; these are instruments of locomotion, and may 
be regarded as rudimentary legs. The arrangement of 
these parts differs much, however, in the various tribes of 
this order. 



746. Describe this first order. 

747 What varieties are described f 









420 ZOOLOGY. 

713. Among the more interesting forms of this order 
may be mentioned the family N:» rkid^e, or Sea-Centi- 
pedes, of which many species inhabit our own coasts, but 
much larger ones are found in tropical seas. They have 
no venomous power, but are extremely voracious ; and are 
often furnished with a complex apparatus for seizing their 
prey and reducing it to fragments. They lurk in narrow 
channels among the rocks ; and their great flexibility 
enables them to thread their way amongst the most sinu- 
ous passages. Some of them line the cavities of the rocks 
which they inhabit with a slight silken web. Many are 
distinguished by their brilliant metallic lustre. One species 
(JV. prolifera) is remarkable for its curious mode of pro- 
pagation. The hinder part of the body is gradually trans- 
formed into an animal, perfect in itself; the head and its 
appendages being developed from one of the segments of 
the body of the parent. At last a separation takes place, 
and each becomes complete in itself. As many as three 
young nereids have been seen thus being developed in 
one length, from the hinder part of the body of the parent. 
After the separation, many new segments are added by 
each. This increase in the number of segments with ad- 
vancing growth seems common to many of the order. 

714. The aphrodita is an animal well known on our 
coasts under the name of sea-mouse; numbers are often 
cast up by a gale of wind. The body is flattened, and 
shorter and broader than that of other Annelida. The 
back is covered by two longitudinal ranges of broad mem- 
branous scales, under which the gills lie concealed. The 
most common species of sea-mouse are about six or eight 
inches long, and two or three broad. A great part of the 
body is covered by bristles of brilliant lustre, and of colours 
which vary with the light ; so that the animal is scarcely 
surpassed in beauty of colouring by any other. In some 
species the strong bristles which project from the sides 
are barbed at the tip on each of the flattened edges, 
so as to become admirable weapons of offence and de- 
fence ; and each is enclosed in a horny sheath composed 

74* Descri »e ! h<' tu v«r 1 npeciea. 



. 



TUBICOLJE THE SKRPULA. 421 

of two pieces, which can be sep.;rat d to allow of its pro- 
trusion. 

715. The arenicola pi.scatorirm, known to fisher- 
men by the name of lob-worm, is another species common 
on our coasts, and is eagerly sought as a bait. It burrows, 
like the earth-worm, in the sand, and the place of its ex- 
cavations may be known by the little heaps which it casts 
up. The branchial tufts are confined to the centre of the 
body, where they form on each side a series of bunches, 
which are remarkable, during the life of the creature, for 
their beautiful red colour, derived from the crimson blood 
which circulates copiously through them. 

Order II.-— Tubicolae. 

716. Comparatively little is known of the structure of 
the animals of the order Tubicolae, which never attain to 
such great dimensions, and do not offer to the naturalist 
the same facilities for examination. The structure of the 
casings which they form, however, has been fully inves- 
tigated. One of the commonest of these is the shelly tube 
exuded by the Serpula. This is formed 
of calcareous matter resembling that of 
the shells of Mollusca, and apparently 
secreted from the surface of the body in 
a similar manner. These tubes, which 
are often very greatly contorted in form, 
are generally found incrusting the sur- 
face of stones or other bodies which have 
been immersed for any iength of time 
at the bottom of the sea ; they are closed 

i , . , . •'. j Serpula Contortupli- 

at one end, which tapers to a point, and cata, taken out of its 
the wide end is open. mbe 

717. The animal forming this shell has its branchial 
fiiaments all assembled round the head, where they form 
a pair of most elegant fan-like appendages, which usually 
possess very brilliant colours. At the base of each tuft 
is a fleshy filament ; and one of these, on the right or left 




749. What of the next order? 
7f>0. Describe the several varieties. 



422 ZOOLOGY. 

side indifferently, is always prolonged and dilated at its 
extremity into a flat disk, which fits to the mouth of the 
shell, and serves to close it when the animal is withdrawn 
into the tube. There is a species of Serpula in the Antiles, 
of which the tube passes into masses of coral, which are 
built up around it. The spirorbis is an animal allied to 
the Serpula, but having a shell of tolerably regular spiral 
form. 

718. The sabella is an animal very much resembling 
the serpula; but it constructs its tube by agglutinating 
particles of clay or fine sand. The animal buries itself 
and its case in the sand, with its head towards the sur- 
face, so as to enable it to protrude its tentacula in search 
of food. The Terebella forms a similar tube, by cement- 
ing together minute shells and fragments of larger ones, 
together with particles of sand, gravel, &c. It has a consi- 
derable number of tentacula upon its head, and the gills 
are much smaller in proportion. Some species of these 
animals live in aggregate groups, so that the clustering 
together of their tubes forms solid masses which may go 
on increasing to a considerable size. In none of these 
cases is the shell or tube to be regarded as part of the ani- 
mal ; it is merely its habitation. Annelide forms no mus- 
cular attachment to it, and its body can be easily drawn 
forth from its interior. 

Order III.— Terricola. 

719. The order Terricola includes very few genera, 
of which the lumbricus, or common earth-worm, is the 
chief. They live in general beneath the surface of the 
ground, either perforating the dry soil or burying them- 
selves in mud, where many of them lead a semi-aquatic 
life. When the earth-worm is carefully examined, the 
adaptation of its structure to its peculiar mode of life be- 
comes evident. It is destitute of the powerful limbs by 
which the mole and the mole-cricket work their way under 
ground ; and it might not at first appear by what organs 
the se are replaced. On looking at the anterior extremity 

75i. What of the third oraW, and its common form? 



TERRICOLA THE EARTH-WORM. 428 

of the body, it is seen that the segments gradually taper 
to a point, in which situation is the opening of the mouth. 
The surface of the body is beset with a number of sharp 
spines or prickles ; these are only felt when the finger is 
passed along from the tail to the head, being all directed 
backwards, and having a somewhat hooked form. When 
the worm is boring, it insinuates its pointed head between 
the particles of earth, amongst which it penetrates like a 
wedge ; and in this position the anterior part of the body 
is fixed by the spines or bristles already mentioned, which 
prevent it from slipping. The hinder parts are then drawn 
forwards by a longitudinal contraction of the whole ani- 
mal — a movement which the spines do not oppose. This 
swells out the anterior segments, and forcibly dilates the 
passage into which the head has been already thrust. 
The spines upon the hinder rings then take a firm hold 
upon the side of the hole thus formed, and prevent any 
backward movement ; the head is again forced forward, 
and, by a repetition of the process, the animal easily 
makes its way through substances which it would at first 
have seemed impossible for it to penetrate. 

720. The burrowing of earth-worms is a process ex- 
ceedingly useful to the gardener and the agriculturist ; 
and these animals are far more beneficial to man in this 
way, than injurious by devouring the vegetables set in 
the soil. They give a kind of under-tillage to the land — 
performing the same below ground that the spade does 
above for the garden, and the plough for arable land — 
and loosening the earth, so as to render it permeable to 
air and water. It has lately been shown that they will 
even add to the depth of the soil, and create mould where 
none existed before. This they do principally by the ex- 
ercise of their digestive process. They take a large quan- 
tity of the soil through which they burrow into their in- 
testinal canal ; from this they extract the greater part of the 
decaying vegetable matter it may contain, and reject the 
rest in a finely divided state, forming what are known as 
worm-casts. By the accumulation of these, a field which 

752. Describe iis complex structure, and habits. 



424 



ZOOLOOY. 



was manured with marl has been covered in the course 
of eighty years with a bed of earth, averaging thirteen 
inches in thickness. 

721. It is commonly supposed that the earth-worm may 
be multiplied by the division of its body into two pieces, 
of which each will continue to live. This does not ap- 
pear to be the case. If it be divided across the middle 
when in motion, each piece will continue to move for a 
time, but only that which bears the head will be found 
alive after a few hours. This forms a new tail, and soon 
shows little sign of the injury. But if the division be 
made near the head, the body will remain alive, and will 
renew the head ; and the head, with its few attached seg- 
ments, will die. The Naiades, however, have a much 
greater amount of reproductive power, for they may be 
cut up into many pieces, of which each will become a per- 
fect animal ; and it is stated that a separation takes place 
spontaneously, but to a much greater extent. 

Order IV. — Suctoria. 

722. The order Suctoria contains the common leech and 
its allies, which are all animals of aquatic habits, but not 
all agreeing in its blood-seeking propensities. Most of 
the tribe, however, live at the expense of some other ani- 
mal. Sometimes they attach themselves to fishes or 
aquatic reptiles ; sometimes they devour Mollusca, Anne- 
lida, or the larvae of insects ; and certain species seem to 
flourish only whilst sucking the blood of higher animals. 
No external organs of respiration are seen on their bodies, 
but a large number of minute sacs are contained in their 
skin, into which air or water is admitted. The skin of 
the common leech is very thin, and scarcely exhibits the 
division into segments ; but the muscular envelope beneath 
it is more substantial, and is found to consist of three dis- 
tinct strata of fibres running in different directions, trans- 
verse or circular, longitudinal and diagonal. By the ac- 



753 Of w:i value are they to the soil ? 

754 What of their vitality and reproductive powers ? 
755. What of the next order and its variety I 



SUCTORIA — THE LEECH. 425 

tion of these they acquire that facility in moving in any 
direction, and in altering the form and dimensions of their 
bodies, for which they are so remarkable. The leech has 
a row of eight or ten simply-constructed eyes, seen as a 
semicircle of black points, just above the mouth ; and the 
surface of the sucker, in which the mouth is placed, seems 
to possess a delicate sense of touch. 

72*. The leech has several modes of progression. On 
land, it sometimes crawls like the earth-worm ; but more 
commonly it advances by means of the suckers at the two 
ends of the body, fixing itself by each alternately, and ad- 
vancing the foremost. In water, however, it moves by 
swimming, for w T hich it is capable of peculiarly adapting 
itself. By a contraction of the muscular integument, the 
body assumes the appearance of a flattened band, and in 
this condition the leech makes its way by a succession of 
very graceful undulations. It frequently crawls along the 
sub-aquatic surface, however, by means of its suckers, in 
the same manner as on land. 

724. The structure of the mouth of the leech is very 
interesting. It is situated in the middle of the cavity of 
the anterior sucker ; and three little cartilaginous bodies, 




Leech, with the anterior sucker and teeth enlarged. 

usually called teeth, but more properly jaws, are seen to 
be disposed around it, in such a manner that the three 
edges form three radii of a circle. Each of these has three 
rows of very minute teeth at its edge, so that it resembles 
a small semicircular saw. It is imbedded at its base in a 



7.%. How does it vary its locomotion ? 
757. What varic-tv is named ? 



423 ZOOLOGY. 

bed of muscle, by the action of which it is worked in such 
a manner as to cut into the skin — a sawing movement 
being given to each piece separately. It is in this man- 
ner that the tri-radiate form of the leech-bite is occasioned, 
each ray being produced by a separate little saw. The 
lacerated character of the wound is very favourable to the 
flow of blood, which is farther promoted by the vacuum 
created by the sucker. 

725. The greater number of the Leech tribe are inhabit- 
ants of fresh water ; some, however, are only found in the 
sea ; and there is one terrestrial species, a native of Ceylon, 
which appears to be more voracious than any other, and 
to be one of the greatest pests of that fine island. It infests 
both mountains, woods, and swampy grounds, particularly 
in the rainy season. When fully extended, it is like a fine 
cord, sharp at the extremity, and can thread any aperture ; 
so that it can easily penetrate the light clothing worn in 
that climate, rendering it impossible to pass through the 
woods without being covered with blood. Dr. Davy 
counted fifty upon the same person. No sooner does any 
individual stop, than, as if they saw or scented him, they 
crowd towards him from all quarters. Other animals be- 
sides man suffer severely from them ; horses are rendered 
so restive by their attack as to become quite unmanage- 
able. 



CLASS XI.— CIRRHOPODA. 

726. The animals composing this class have so many 
characters in common with the Mollusca, that they have 
i been generally regarded as belonging to that sub-kingdom. 
The body and its appendages are themselves quite soft ; 
and the skin has the loose, spongy, muscular character 
which corresponds with the mantle of molluscs. From its 
surface is secreted a shell composed of several pieces, but 
not differing in general aspect from multivalve shells, be- 

758. What of their blood-thirsty habits? 



CLASS CIRRHOPOD A— GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 427 

longing to that division. Further, the shells are either 
themselves firmly united at their base to some solid masses, 
or they are attached by a footstalk ; so that the conditions 
in which the animal exist closely resemble those to which 
we observe the Mollusca peculiarly adapted. 

727. On the other hand, when we examine the animal 
itself, we find that it is perfectly symmetrical in its form — 
a character nowhere existing among the Mollusca which 
are enclosed in shells. Its body is prolonged, and exhi- 
bits a tendency to division into segments ; and from each 
of these there arises a pair of appendages on each side, 
which possess something of a jointed structure. These 
cirri, as they are termed, are long tapering arms, fringed 
with cilia, or little hair-like filaments ; and they have gills 
at their base. Further, the mouth is furnished with late- 
ral jaws, which no Mollusca possess ; and the nervous 
system consists of a double cord, with a pair of ganglia in 
each segment of the body, precisely as in the other Articu- 
lata. The most interesting proof, however, that the Cirrho- 
poda belong to this division, is derived from the history of 
their development. On their liberation from the egg, they 
present a form much more analogous to that of the lower 
Crustacea than to that of the adult animal, which they 
only acquire after a series of metamorphoses. They are 
furnished with antenna? and eyes, and move freely through 
the water; but when they become fixed, they lose also 
these organs of sense. The shell is not formed of simple 
layers, like that of the Mollusca, but is traversed by a com- 
plex series of canals, through which nourishment is con- 
veyed to it. 

728. The Cirrhopoda are divided into two principal 
groups — the pedunculated and the sessile. The latter, of 
which the common balanus, or acorn-shell, is an example, 
have the base of the shell fixed immediately to rocks. In 
the former, such as the well-known barnacle, the shell is 
attached by a peduncle or footstalk, which consists of a 



759 Describe the eleventh class ? 

760. What is peculiar in their structure ? 

761. Ho v are they divided ? 



fn m 






428 



ZOOLOGY. 



tube of leathery consistence, and is often of considerable 
length. In both groups the animals not being able to go 
in search of food, obtain it through the currents produced 
by the action of their cilia. 

729. The shell of the common barnacle consists of five 
pieces, of which two are large valves, somewhat resem- 
bling those of a mussel ; two smaller pieces are jointed to 
these near the point ; and one unites the valves along the 
back edge. These cover the whole of the mantle. Barn- 
acles are abundant in all seas, and fix themselves, in pre- 
ference, to wood ; so that a piece of timber which has 
been for a short time floating in the ocean is almost sure to 




Group of Anatifa, attached to a ship's bottom. 

be partly covered with them ; and ships' bottoms, if not 
protected with copper, are rendered so foul as greatly to 



762. 
763. 



Describe the diagram. 

What of the sheii of the barnacle ? 



CULRHOPODA 1HL BALANUS. 429 

impede their sailing. To the species common on oar own 
coasts was once attributed the wonderful faculty of chang- 
ing into a goose ! In other genera allied to the barnacles, 
the valves are much smaller, and do not altogether cover 
the mantle, which appears, between them ; and in one, 
ofion, the mantle is of cartilaginous texture, and the pieces 
of the shell, which are extremely small, are included with- 
in it. One curious pedunculated genus, the lytko< 
has a piece at the base of the footstalk, analogous to the 
shelly base of the balanus, and has the power of penetrat- 
ing stones for its habitation. 

7->0. The Balanus, or Acorn-shell, has more of a glob- 
ular shape, with a narrow mouth, and is composed of a 
certain number (varying in the different species) of plates, 
of a triangular form, so disposed that an addition to the 
edges of each shall preserve the general proportions of the 
shell, whilst increasing its cavity in all its dimensions in 
accordance with the growth of the animal. In this arrange- 
ment we recognise the same plan as that adopted in the 
shell of the echinus. The animal closely resembles the 
barnacle. The mouth of the shell is guarded by an oper- 
culum, consisting of two or more valves, which close it 
more or less completely. The rocks, piers, &c, on many 
parts of the coast, are covered with these animals ; and 
small species of them also attach themselves to shells of 
various kinds. In some genera there is a considerable 
interval between the exterior and interior wall ; this is 
either filled with a cellular shelly structure, or with the 
substance on which these animals fix themselves. The 
coro)mla y for example, is never found but on the backs of 
whales, and their skin rises into this hollow, or rather the 
shell is so far imbedded in the skin. Others, again, at- 
tach themselves to the backs of turtles. 

764. What of their habits? 

765. Describe the acorn-shell. 



430 ZOOLOGY. 



CLASS XII.— ROTIFERA. 

731. The class Rotifera is one composed entirely ol 
animalcules which can only be distinctly seen with the 
microscope ; and it takes its name from the wheel-like 
organs with which most of them are provided, whence they 
are commonly known as wheel-animalcules. It is only 
within a very recent period that the complex structure of 
these beings has been understood, and that they have been 
separated from the animalcules of simpler organization. 
Whatever doubt still hangs over the real nature of their 
conformation, none exists in regard to these, at least on 
any material point. It is on account of the prolonged 
form of their bodies, the position of the mouth and eyes at 
one extremity, the occasional marking of transverse lines 
indicating a division into segments, and most of all by the 
character of the nervous system, where that can be de- 
tected, that the Rotifera are ranked in the articulated sub- 
kingdom. Unquestionably they bear more general anal- 
ogy to that than to any other ; but they must not be con- 
sidered as characteristic specimens of it. 

732. The structure of the common wheel-animalcule, 
rotifer vulgaris — which may be found in many collections 
of stagnant water, especially such as have been long and 
freely exposed to the atmosphere — will afford a good illus- 
tration of that of the class. The body exhibits a prolonged 
form when fully extended ; but, as the integument is very 
elastic, it may be drawn up into a circle, or made to as- 
sume a great variety of shapes. At one end it is furnished 
with a pair of projections, which are surmounted by cir- 
cular fringes of cilia. It is by the vibration of these cilia 
that the currents are produced in water around, which 
give an appearance as of the continual revolution of wheels. 
Between the wheels, a sort of head extends forwards, on 
which a couple of red spots may be observed, which are 

766. What of the twelfth class ? 

767 Describe flie most common form. 



CLASS ROT1TERA — WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 431 

believed lo be eyes. The mouth is situated at the base 
of this central projection. At the opposite end the body 
is prolonged into a sort of tail, furnished with three prongs; 
and by this the animal fixes itself when working its wheels 
for obtaining food. 

733. Th^ delicate membrane which covers the body 
has two series of muscular fibres disposed within it ; one 
stt running longitudinally from end to end; the other 
transversely, so as to form rings round the body. By the 
contraction of the former the body is shortened ; by that 
of the latter its diameter is decreased, and it is conse- 
quently lengthened. This is the same kind of apparatus 
as that by which the form of the leech and worm tribe is 
altered. The transparency of the integument allows the 
contained organs to be distinctly seen ; and these are per- 
ceived to have regular membranous walls of their own, 
and to be altogether distinct from the general substance of 
the body. The most curious of these is the gizzard, or 
set of jaws (as it may perhaps be termed) in which the 
food is ground down before it is transmitted to the true 
stomach. This is placed in the fore part of the body, and 
principally consists of a hard framework in two pieces, 
each of which bears two teeth. The two frames are 
moved by powerful muscles, and worked in such a man- 
ner that the teeth are made to interlock and to separate 
alternately, so as to tear all the food which is transmitted 
into the stomach. From the stomach there passes back- 
wards a long straight intestine, which terminates near the 
posterior part of the body. 

734. These animalcules feed chiefly upon others of 
smaller size and simpler character. The currents set in 
motion by the cilia are very powerful, and draw in what- 
ever small bodies are within their scope ; and the animal 
seems to select from these what is adapted to afford it nu- 
trition. Sometimes it folds in its wheels, and moves along 
a solid surface by the suckers with which its head and 
tail are furnished, in the same manner as a leech ; and 
sometimes it remains altogether inert for a considerable 



768. What \s peculiar in their structure / 



432 ZOOLOGY. 

period. One of the most remarkable points in its history 
is its power of being revived by the application of moisture, 
after having been entirely dried up. This experiment, 
however, does not always succeed. 

735. The wheel-animalcules do not multiply by spon- 
taneous division ; but they are propagated by eggs, the 
development of which within the body of the parent may 
be very distinctly seen, on account of the transparency of 
the latter. These eggs are large and not very numerous, 
seldom more than four ; but they rapidly arrive at matu- 
rity, and are soon capable of producing others. It has 
been calculated that from a single individual more than a 
million may be produced in ten days. In some of this 
class, the eggs are borne for some time on the outside of 
the body, attached to its posterior part. 

736. Some of the more interesting varieties of form may 
now be noticed. As the principles upon which the class 
should be subdivided are not yet established, it will 
be better not to attempt any systematic distribution of 
them. 

737. Although the external membrane is generally soft, 
it occasionally exhibits a horny consistence ; and, it is 
probable, is consolidated in some instances by a deposition 
of earthy matter, without, however, losing its transparency. 
There is one very interesting species in which a regular 
cell is thus formed and attached to a fixed point, like that 
of the higher Polypifera; and there is a considerable space 
between its inner wall and the membrane covering the 
animal organs, which seems filled with fluid, so as to allow 
great freedom of motion to the interior structure. In this 
animal, the stephanoceros eichornii, we find another re- 
markable variation from the common type of the Rotifera, 
to which it conforms in the general aspect of the body and 
in the disposition of the internal parts. The cilia, instead 
of being arranged in two circular projections, are set as a 
fringe upon six arms or tentacula, which resemble those 
of the Bowerbankia (§ 928). Thus the structure of this 



769. What of their reproduction ? 

770. What various species are named ? 



CLASS ROT1FERA WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 433 

animalcule may be regarded as intermediate between that 
of the Bryozoa and the true Rotifera. 

738. In many species we observe an even greater com- 
plexity in the internal structure than in the rotifer. Thus 
the jaws are sometimes furnished with five or six pairs of 
teeth ; and a pair of long tubular organs, which appear 
to have the secretion of a salivary fluid for their object, 
opens between them. The stomach is often provided with 
like tubular appendages, which appear to furnish secre- 
tions useful in the digestive functions. A system of vessels, 
ramifying beneath the integument, has also been seen in 
the most highly organized species. The cilia are disposed 
in various ways, but usually in a circular form. Some- 
times they are placed in two row r s all around the funnel- 
like edge in which the body terminates at its anterior ex- 
tremity. 

739. We observe the formation of a hard envelope in 
some of the highest as well as of the lowest species. The 
brachionas and its allies have the body encased in a sheath 
from which the tail projects at one end, and the head and 
ciliary organs at the other. These animals are evidently 
more analogous to the lower tribes of Crustacea, which 
some of them, indeed, much resemble. Their hard sheath 
is occasionally furnished with long spines, which may 
probably serve as means of defence. Their dental appa- 
ratus is formed on the plan of that of the rotifer, and they 
employ their wheels in obtaining food ; but they have also 
the power of projecting the teeth beyond the mouth, and 
of thus masticating the vegetable substances upon which 
they partly feed. They are among the most abundant 
forms of the whole class, few ponds being without them 
in summer. 

771. What other species is described ? 






434 ZOOLOGY. 

CLASS XIIL— ENTOZOA. 

740. This class derives its name from the peculiar con- 
dition in which the animals composing it exist, most of 
them being inhabitants, during their whole lives, of the 
bodies of other animals, mostly those of higher organiza- 
tion, from the juices of which tru-y derive their nourish- 
ment. A number of species, differing almost as widely 
as the different vertebrated animals of the same country, 
are associated together by this character ; and with these 
are united a few which are not parasitic, but which so 
strongly resemble particular kinds of them that they can 
scarcely be separated. The group is thus one of the most 
unnatural in the whole animal kingdom ; and yet it does 
not seem easy to dispose of its component parts among 
other classes, so widely do they all differ from them, as 
well as from each other. Many of them possess a distinct 
worm-like form, the body being much prolonged, and ex- 
hibiting a division into segments, and the mouth being 
situated at one extremity. These, therefore, evidently be- 
long to the articulated series. There are others which, 
in the absence of all distinct organs, and also in the circu- 
larity of their form, seem to approximate more to the Ra- 
diata. Some species formerly located in this class are now 
known to be low kinds of Crustacea. 

741. A division of the Entozoa into two sections has 
been proposed, founded upon the general peculiarities of 
their structure, which it may be useful here to adopt. In 
the first and highest of these, there is a distinct intestinal 
tube, with an orifice at each end ; and traces of a nervous 
and muscular system, more or less developed, may be de- 
tected. This division evidently approximates to the Anne- 
lida. It includes, among many other species, the Filaria, 
or Guinea-worm, which burrows in the flesh of man and 
other animals in warm climates. If undisturbed, it will 
often continue its operations for a considerable time with- 

772. What is the characteristic of the thirteenth class? 

773. What varieties of the first group are named ? 



class r.NTOzoA. 435 

out much uneasiness ; but if disturbed, it sometimes occa- 
sions the most excruciating pain. When it shows itself 
externally, it is extracted very slowly, for fear of breaking 
it, in which case the remainder would retreat, and continue 
to exist ; it grows to the length of several yards. The 
ascaris lumbricoides, or round worm of the intestines, 
also belongs to this group. It infests not only man but 
many of the lower animals, and often occasions severe dis- 
ease, and even death. It derives its second or specific 
name from its resemblance to the earth-worm. The short, 
active thread-worms, sometimes infesting the lower part of 
the intestine, are another species of the same genus. One 
of the most complex in its structure of all these parasitic 
worms, is the strongylus gigfts, which principally infests 
the dog, wolf, and other Carnivora. It grows to the length 
of two or three feet, and is as thick as the little finger. 
None of these animals possess any organs of sense, or any 
very distinct respiratory apparatus ; and though vessels 
for the circulation of the nutritive fluid can be traced in 
some, there is no distinct heart or muscular dilatation of 
the tubes for its propulsion. They possess no locomotive 
appendages of any description, and all their movements 
are performed by the body itself. 

742. In the lower division of the class, there is no dis- 
tinct alimentary canal ; the cavities for the reception of 
food, as well as those for other purposes, being, as it were, 
channelled out of the soft, almost homogeneous, tissues 
of the body. Some of these still preserve the worm-like 
form. Such are the so-called eels in vinegar, and the 
curious little parasites which have been recently discovered 
to infest the muscles of man. To this group also belongs 
the tsenia solium, or tape-worm, in which we find a remark- 
able repetition of organs. The body is distinctly divided 
into joints or segments, which sometimes amount to seve- 
ral hundred, the whole animal occasionally attaining the 
length often feet. These segments are all connected by 
the nutritive canal, which runs from one end to the other ; 



774. How is the other division characterized ? 
. 73. Wha: remarkable example is cited ? 



430 



zooloov. 






but the reproductive apparatus is repeated in each division. 
The head is small, and possesses four mouths, surrounded 
by a double circle of small hooks. Its existence is essen- 
tial to the life of the body, the latter dying if it be broken 
off; but if some of the joints remain attached to the head, 
it continues to grow and form new ones. In this repeti- 
tion of parts we see a tendency towards the type of the 
Polypi fera. 

743. One of the most simple of all the Entozoa is the 
common hydatid, or acephalocyst (headless bag), which 
seems to consist of nothing but a globular membranous 
bag filled with a limpid colourless fluid. It exhibits no 
motion or indication of sensation, when stimuli of any kind 
are applied to it ; and it is often difficult to distinguish it 
from the tissues in which it is found. Its power of repro- 
duction, however, by the formation of gemmae or buds be- 
tween its layers, shows it to be entitled to the rank of an 
independent being ; the young hydatids are thrown off in- 
ternally or externally, according to the species. Other 
Entozoa, with the same genera] form, exhibit a more com- 
plex structure ; thus, the cysticercus has a bag, similar 
to that of the hydatid, but to this is appended a sort of head, 
armed with spines for its attachment, and with suckers for 
the imbibition of nutriment. This parasite has been ob- 
served within the eye of man. 

744. Amongst the animals associated with this group, 
though not conforming with it in their residence, is the 
Planaria, a very interesting genus, of which some species 
inhabit fresh water, and others are marine. The body is 
flat, and about three or four times as long as broad. With- 
in its soft tissue are channelled out not only a complex 
digestive cavity, but also a system of vessels which absorb 
fluid from its walls and convey it through the system, and 
a reproductive apparatus. The stomach opens, not by a 
mouth at one end, but by a sort of sucker projecting from 
the middle of the body ; and through this the Planaria 
imbibes the juices of various aquatic animals which it at- 



776. What species of hydatid are described ? 

777. What other varieties are named ? 



CLASS ENTOZOA. 437 

tacks, mastering even active little worms, by twisting ite 
body round them. The most curious part of their econo- 
my consists in their power of reproducing parts that have 
been lost, and of repairing injuries, which seems almost 
as great as that of the hydra among Polypes. They may 
be divided into three parts, of which the former shall con- 
tain the two minute spots which are believed to be eyes, 
the middle one the sucker, and the posterior one the re- 
productive apparatus ; and in a short time, each part will 
develop itself into a new individual, perfect in all its parts. 
It may be partially split longitudinally, from either extre- 
mity, so that two heads or two tails will be formed, 
uniting at the middle point, but each being complete in 
itself. 

745. Closely allied in structure to the Planaria is the 
distoma, or fluke, which infests the liver of sheep, and 
sometimes gives rise to severe disorders ; it is also found 
in other domestic quadrupeds, and even in man. It is 
about an inch in length, and a quarter of an inch in 
breadth, having the form of a minute sole ; and it pos- 
sesses eyes situated on the most conspicuous part of the 
head. The power of multiplication of these animals is 
very great. The ducts of a single liver have been known 
to contain a thousand, with innumerable germs of others. 
They usually accompany the disease called rot in sheep ; 
but they do not appear to be necessarily connected with 
it. They most frequently infest sheep that are pasturing 
on marshy grounds, in the waters of which their germs 
are probably contained ; and it seems to be generally 
rather the un healthiness of the situation than the develop- 
ment of the flukes, that is the real cause of the rot, since 
flukes infest the most healthy sheep during the autumn 
and winter months. 

778. What of flukes and their habits? 



43$ 



ZOOLOGY. 






SUB-KINGDOM MOLLUSC A. 

746. The range of animal forms comprehended in this divi- 
sion of the Animal Kingdom is so great that it would be diffi- 
cult to include them by any definition applicable to them all* 
The highest class approaches Fishes in many points of its or- 
ganization ; whilst in the lowest we not only lose sight of some 
of the characteristic peculiarities of the group, but we find a 
near approximation to the higher Polypifera. In all the Mol- 
lusca, the body itself is of soft consistence, as its name imports, 
and is enclosed in a soft elastic skin, lined with muscular fibres, 
which is termed the mantle. This skin, in many instances, is 
not applied closely to the body, but forms a membranous bag, 
having apertures (which are sometimes prolonged into tubes) 
for the entrance and egress of water; and through these the 
respiratory organs, which are situated within the cavity, are 
regularly supplied with the pure fluid necessary for aerating 
the blood : and the mouth, when it is not capable of being pro- 
jected beyond this cavity, is supplied with food by the same 
stream. 

747. The Mollusca possess in general a very complicated di- 
gestive and circulating apparatus; but the organs of sensation 
and voluntary motion are comparatively undeveloped. The 
great bulk of their bodies is made up of the stomach and intes- 
tines, the liver and other glands connected with the alimentary 
canal, the respiratory apparatus and the ovary for the produc- 
tion of germs (which is usually very large) ; and the muscular 
system, which in the Articulata forms so large a proportion of 
the whole structure, is here frequently reduced to a few scat- 
tered fibres, and in but few instances attains any complexity or 
power. A considerable number of Mollusca are formed for an 
existence as completely stationary as that of the Zoophytes ; 
and are dependent for their nourishment on the supplies of food 
casually brought within their reach by the waves and currents 
of the ocean. A few, however, have powers of locomotion 
which enables them to search actively for it themselves; but 
the greater number wander sluggishly like the snail, from place 
to place, devouring with voracity such supplies as they meet 
with, and being capable of fasting for long intervals when none 
come in their way. 

748. It is from the surface of the mantle that the calcareous 
ma;teris exuded which forms the shell, in those species which 



779. Describe this sub-kingdom. 

780. What oi their m:ernal o gansl 



SUB- KINGDOM MOLLUSC A. 409 

possess such a protection ; its particles are held together by a 
sort of glue, which exists in much larger proportion in some spe- 
cies than in others. In very hard and brittle shells, if the cal- 
careous matter be removed by the action of an acid, the animal 
matter that remains appears in the form of separate flakes. 
But in many other shells thus treated, the animal portion re- 
tains its form after the removal of the lime; and there are a 
few in which the (so-called) shell consists only of a substance 
like horn, without any intermixture of calcareous particles. 
Such a substance appears to be formed by the young animal 
before the true shell is secreted ; and it is also the first that ap- 
pears when the animal is repairing the effects of an injury to the 
old one. It is this that constitutes what is commonly termed 
the epidermis of shells — a covering possessed in their natural 
state by all that are not enveloped in a fold of the mantle, but 
which is commonly removed when the shell is preserved, as it 
impairs the beauty of the exterior. The shell is most solid and 
massive in those species which lead an inactive life ; and is 
usually light and thin, or altogether deficient, in those whose 
powers of locomotion are greater. Its thickness often varies 
greatly amongst different individuals of the same species, accord- 
ing to the roughness or tranquillity of the waters they inhabit. 

749. As the shells of Mollusca are the parts of their structure 
by which they are best known, it was natural that the first at* 
tempts at classification should be founded on their peculiari- 
ties. Accordingly, Linnaeus arranged them into Univalves, Li- 
valves, and MulUvalves, according to the number of pieces of 
which the shell is composed ; and this classification, from its 
simplicity and the apparent facility of its application, has been 
very generally adopted. But, as will hereafter be seen, it is only 
within certain narrow limits that the character of the animal 
can be known by the structure of its shell ; and by the Linnaean 
classification, animals are brought together which are widely 
separated, and others are placed in distinct classes, which are 
closely allied. Again, such a classification is totally inappli- 
cable to the very numerous shell-less Mollusca, some of which 
approach so closely to those bearing shells (as, for example, the 
slug to the snail), that scarcely any essential difference exists. 
It is obvious, then, that although the characters derived from 
the shell may often be valuable in enabling us to recognise the 
remains of particular animals, classification must not be founded 
on them, but on the general conformation of the animals by 
which they are produced. 

781. What of their habits ? 

782. What of the formation of their shells ? 

783. How are they arranged by Linnaeus ? 

784. What objection lies to this classification ? 



440 ZOOLOGY. 

750. Following this principle, the Mollusca may be divided, 
first, into those having a head — that is, a prominent part of the 
body on which the mouth is situated, with organs of sense in 
its neighbourhood ; and those which are acephalous, or headless. 
Among the former, we perceive three very distinct types of 
structure. 

751. The Cephalopoda, or Cuttle-Fish tribe, have feet or ten- 
tacula arranged in a circular manner around the head. In this 
group we find the nearest approximation to the Vertebrata. 

752. The Pteropoda constitute a small but interesting class, 
characterized by the possession of a pair of wing-like expan- 
sions of the mantle, and by the great symmetry of their bodies. 
These expansions serve as fins by which they swim through 
the water with great velocity. 

753. The Gasteropoda are the most extensive group of the 
whole. The two former are confined entirely to the sea; 
amongst these we find species adapted to live in fresh water, 
and even on land. They have but one muscular expansion or 
foot, and this proceeds from the under surface of the body, as 
may be well seen in the snail. 

754. In each of these orders, we observe a considerable va- 
riation in regard to the relative size, and even the existence, of 
a shell ; for whilst there are some species in all of them which 
are entirely destitute of this protection (such being called naked 
Molluscs), there are others which possess it in a slight degree, 
having it generally concealed in a fold of the mantle, whilst in 
others it completely envelops the body, when they desire to 
withdraw themselves under its protection. In the different spe- 
cies of snail and slug, all agreeing closely in general structure, 
every variety of this kind may be seen. 

755. In the headless Molluscs, on the other hand, we find twt 
very distinct groups, ia the first of which the shell is constantly 
present, whilst in the second it is as invariably absent. Tht 
general structure of the latter is much inferior to that of the 
shell-bearing class, and it approaches more nearly in several of 
its characters to the Polypifera. 

756. The highest class of acephalous Molluscs is named 
Coxchifera, from the constant occurrence of a shell, which is 
nearly always formed of two pieces, or bivalve. 

757. The lowest is denominated Tuxicata, the shell being 
replaced, as it were, by a leathery or cartilaginous envelope or 
tunic, which encloses the whole body. 

785. What of their three types of conformation ? 

786. Describe each of them. 



CLASS CEPHALOPODA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 441 



CLASS XIV.— CEPHALOPODA. 

758. The class of Cephalopoda, which is so named from the 
arrangement of the feet or locomotive organs around the head, 
must be regarded as the highest among the M ollusca in respect 
to the complexity of its organization, and it is the one which 
approaches most nearly to Vertebrated animals. In the gene- 
ral form of their bodies, and in their adaptation to rapid motion 
through the water, many species bear a considerable resem- 
blance to Fishes, and are, indeed, commonly reputed as such. 
The name of the class expresses the character which distin- 
guishes it from all others. On the head, which is furnished 
with eyes resembling those of higher animals, and also with 
organs of hearing, and perhaps of smell, are disposed in a cir- 
cular manner the curious appendages, which have received the 
names of feet or arms, and to which either term may be justly 
given, as they are organs of prehension as well as of locomo- 
tion. These are usually eight or ten in number ; but in the true 
Nautilus they are much more numerous, amounting to nearly a 
hundred. These arms may be regarded as analogous to the 
tentacula or feelers which will be described in the lower classes 
of Mollusca, and some rudiments of them may be traced in the 
fleshy prolongations of the lips of certain fishes. 

759. The mouth, which is situated in the centre of the circle 
of arms, is provided with a pair of firm horny mandibles or 
jaws, of which one is sharply pointed and overlaps the other 
when closed, so that the whole very much resembles the bill 
of a parrot. This beak encloses a large fleshy tongue, rough- 
ened with horny prickles ; and the oesophagus leads to a mus- 
cular stomach, which much resembles the gizzard of birds. 
All the Cephalopoda are aquatic, and consequently breathe by 
gills. These are disposed symmetrically on the two sides, and 
are covered in by the mantle. This envelope includes the whole 
body, but there is an opening in it which gives passage to the 
head. Through this opening the water enters to the gills, and 
it is expelled through a tubular prolongation of the mantle 
termed the funnel, which also serves as the excretory canal 
for other fluids. 

760. Most of the Cephalopoda possess something analogous 
to the shelis of other Mollusca, although it often exists in a 
form and position which might almost prevent its being recog- 
nised as such. The only species at present known in which 



787. What other species are described ? 

788. What of the structure of this class ? 



412 



ZOOLOGY. 



the body of the animal is enclosed within it, as in the shells 
of Gasteropoda, are the nautilus and the argonaut a (paper- 
nautilus). In the former of these the shell is spiral, and is 
divided by transverse partitions into chambers, in the last or 
outermost of which the animal lives ; and, when it wishes to 
enlarge its shell, it prolongs the mouth of it, which widens as 
it is prolonged, and throws a new partition across the bottom. 
The shell of the argonaut has no such chambers, and the ani- 
mal, when hiding within it, occupies the whole of its cavity. In 
the common sepia (cuttle-fish), on the other hand, the shell is 
reduced to the form of an oval plate, commonly known as the 
cut.'le-fish bone, from which pounce is derived, that may be 
picked up on almost every shore; and this is enclosed within 
a fold of the mantle, and lies upon the back of the animal. 
In some of the more slender and flexible species, even this is 
nearly wanting ; all that remains of a shell in the loUgo (squid) 
being a narrow horny plate, somewhat resembling a feather in 
shape, whence it is termed the pen. 

761. The nautilus is not the only Cephalopod which possess 
a spiral chambered shell. Such a one is found in the spirula ; 




Ammonites. 

it does not protect the animal, however, externally, but is en- 
closed within it, like the bone of the cuttle-fish. There is reason 
to believe that this is the character of the fossils termed anmionites 
(commonly known as snake-stones), which abound in almost 
every rock containing organic remains, but of which no living 
representatives are known. If this be the case, the cuttle-fish 
to which these shells belonged must have been of enormous 
size, as ammonites have been found measuring four or five feet 
in diameter, although most of them are much smaller. No 
entire specimens of gigantic cuttle-fish at present living have 
been seen by naturalists ; but there is no doubt, from the frag- 

789. Describe the several species named ? 

790. What of the nautilus > 



CLASS CEPHALOPODA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 443 

ments which are preserved in museums, that such exist in the 
South Seas, where they are feared by the islanders more than 
sharks. 

762. The arms of all the Cephalopoda are covered with very 
curiously constructed suckers, by which they are enabled to 
take firm hold of any thing to which they are applied. These 
act by excluding the air, and thus producing a vacuum, exactly 
upon the principle of the boy's leather sucker. In this manner 
they are enabled to master animals which it would have been 
supposed entirely out of the power of their soft unprotected 
bodies to combat successfully. They are generally agile as 
well as voracious, and prey upon almost all other classes of 
marine animals. Their especial articles of food, however, are 
fishes and Crustacea, and they are probably the only animals 
which are able to restrain the inordinate multiplication of the 
larger members of the latter class. The firm armour of the 
crab or lobster, and its powerful claws, are no protection to it 
against the soft-limbed cuttle-fish, which wind their arms 
round the bodies of the latter, and, fixing every part by means 
of their suckers, tear apart the division of the shell with their 
hard parrot-like bills. So firmly do these suckers adhere, that, 
while the muscular fibres remain contracted, it is easier to tear 
away the substance of the limb than to release it from its at- 
tachment. 

763. The Cephalopoda, which are unprotected by an exter- 
nal shell, are furnished with a curious means of escaping from 
their enemies. This is a secretion of a dark lluid, which, 
when emitted by the animal, tinges the water around to such 
a degree that it can escape in the cloud it has made. The 
fluid is usually stored up in a bag communicating with the 
funnel, through which it is ejected under the influence of alarm. 
This ink-bag, as it is termed, is collected from the species in- 
habiting the Indian seas, as the ink forms a valuable pigment, 
known to the artist as sepia y the name of the animal which fur- 
nishes it. The ink-bag has been discovered in a fossil state ; 
and its occurrence along with certain chambered shells affords 
a presumption that these were included, like the cuttle-fish bone, 
within the body of the animal, and did not serve for its ex- 
ternal protection. In many of the species, the skin is brightly 
spotted and has the power of changing colour, like that of the 
chameleon ; it is not improbable that this may be an additional 
provision for defence, by enabling the animals to elude obser- 
vation. 



791. Describe the ammonites. 

792. What is said of their habits ? 

793. What remarkable faculiy have fhey ? 



444 ZOOLOGY. 

764. The class of Cephalopoda may be subdivided into two 
orders. In the higher division which approaches the nearest 
to vertebrate animals, the branchia, or gills, are two in number, 
and the order is termed Dibranchuta; whilst in the one most 
closely allied to the Gasteropod Mollusca, the branchiae are 
four in number, and the order is therefore termed Tetrabran- 

CHIATA. 

Order I. — Dibranchiata. 

765. The Dibranchiate order includes all the best known 
forms of the class. It is divided into two tribes, in one of which 
there are but eight arms, whilst in the other there are ten, of 
which, however, two are different from the rest. The first of 
these, termed Octopoda, may be considered as the highest in 
point of general organization ; the second, termed Decapoda, 
presents many points of approach to the Tetrabranchiate order, 
both in the increased number of arms, and in the presence of an 
inner circle of short tentacula, as well as in several internal 
characters. 

766. The sepia, or common cuttle-fish, is a characteristic ex- 
ample of the Decapod family. Some species of it abound in 
almost all seas. It has two long slender arms, which are fur- 
nished with suckers only at their extremities, and by these the 
animal is said to fix itself, as by anchors, when exposed to a 
rough sea or strong current. They are probably employed also 
in seizing prey, which is brought by them within the range of 
the others. The Sepiae are often brought up in large numbers by 
the fisherman of the British coasts, and cause them great annoy- 
ance by devouring a large quantity of fish whilst imprisoned 
with them in their nets. On the coast of Newfoundland, they 
arrive at a certain part of the year in large shoals, and they 
are caught for the purpose of serving as bait to cod-fish, one 
hundred thousand of which are annually captured by their 
means. The bone or shell is of an oval form, and thick in the 
centre. It is chiefly composed of a number of very thin paral- 
lel calcareous laminae, joined together by multitudes of little 
hollow columns placed perpendicularly in the spaces between 
them. Besides this shell, there is a cartilaginous framework 
within the body, supporting and protecting the nervous system ; 
this is the first appearance of an internal skeleton for that pur- 
pose, and is the rudiment of that which is so largely developed 
in the Vertebrata. The eggs of the Sepiae are attached together 
in clusters, and are commonly known as sea-grapes. 

794. How are they divided into orders ? 

795. What subdivisions are made of the first order ? 

796. Describe the cuttle-fish. 



DIBRANCHIATA THE LOLIGO, &C. 445 

767. The loligo, calamary, or squid, is another Decapod genus, 
differing from the previous one chiefly in the slenderness of the 
body, and in the expansion of the two sides of it into fin-like 
processes ; so that the general aspect much more closely re- 
sembles that of fishes. It is by the stroke of the body upon the 
water that these animals swim, and not by any movement of 
the arms, which are short, and comparatively powerless. It is 
even said that some species have the faculty of leaping from 
the water, in the manner of flying-fish. The bligopsis, an allied 
genus, is remarkable for the enormous length of the two pro- 
longed tentacula, which attain several times the dimensions of 
the body. These remind us of the long tentaculata which the 
brown hydra possesses, and the use of them is evidently the same. 

768. Although not used in Britain as articles of food, there 
is no reason why these cuttle-fishes should not be employed 
for that purpose. They formed a favourite dish with the an- 
cients, and were not considered unworthy of the most exquisite 
cookery. The arms, cut into portions and prepared for the 
table, are frequently to be seen in the Neapolitan market; and 
they are found to be nutritious as well as palatable. 

769. To this group we are probably to refer the spirula, a 
little chambered shell, the animal of which is very imperfectly 
known ; and a large number of fossil chambered shells, 
known as ammonites, belemnites, &c. ; the animal of which was 
probably analogous to the sepia, including the shell, like the 
bone of the cuttle-fish, within the body. With the belemnites, 
which are shells of a conical shape, surrounded by a solid 
sheath are occasionally found the remains of ink-bags and 
mandibles, so that no doubt can reasonably exist as to the 
nature of the animals to which they belonged. Probably the 
orthnceratHes, hamites, &c, are to be also viewed as internal shells, 
belonging to an animal more nearly allied to the cuttle-fish than 
to the nautilus, with which they have been usually associated. 

770. The Octapods, which form the highest family of the 
Dibranchiata, have but eight arms, without tentacula; and 
they are destitute of lateral fins, so that they depend entirely 
upon the arms for their movement through the water. Ac- 
cordingly, it is found that these are very large and powerful, 
and that the body is proportionally short. The arms are gene- 
rally united at their bases into a kind of circular fin, by the 
motion of which the animal can swim backwards with great 
energy. 

771. The common octopus, or poulp, of European shores, has 
the arms six times the length of the body, and each furnished 

797. What various species are described ? 

79 s . What are the characteristic* of the Octapods ? 












446 



ZOOLOGY. 



with 120 pairs of suckers. It can leave the water, and creep 
over the beach, taking hold of the ground before it by the ex- 
tension of its arms, and then dragging the body towards the 
points at which the suckers are attached. It is considered very 
destructive of the Crustacea, and it is stated to lie in wait for 
them in cavities of the rocks, by which the body is concealed, 
the arms ranging in search of prey. The flesh of the octopus 
is tougher than that of the sepia, but it is eaten by the inhabit- 
ants of the Grecian archipelago. Many marvellous stories are 
related by the older naturalists in regard to the size which this 
animal occasionally attains. According to Aristotle, there are 
species whose arms are about six feet in length, and his usual 
accuracy gives weight to his statement. Pliny, however, goes 
much farther, and tells of one which had arms thirty feet 
long, and a head the size of a large cask. It is probable that 
some of the accounts of the kraken, a gigantic marine monster 
reported to have been seen by many navigators, are to be re- 
fered to large species of Octopi ; but they must be stripped of 
the marvellous, and reduced to plain and definite statements of 
fact, before they can be received by the naturalist. 

772. A very interesting species of the Octopod group is the 
argonauta argo, commonly called the paper-nautilus, from the 
whiteness and delicacy of its shell. As the animal has little in 
common with the true Nautilus, it would be much better if the 
latter designation were entirely abandoned, and the term argo- 
naut substituted for it. The shell is not chambered, but pos- 
sesses one spiral cavity, into which the animal can withdraw 
itself entirely ; this, however, has no muscular attachment to it, 
whence it has been supposed by many naturalists that it was 
only a parasitic inhabitant which had taken up its abode with- 
in it, and that the shell, from its resemblance to that of Carina- 
ria, was formed by a Gasteropod mollusc allied to that genus. 
It has been lately proved, however, by the interesting experi- 
ments of Madame Power, that the shell increases regularly with 
the growth of the animal, which possesses the power of repair- 
ing it when injured ; so that no doubt can exist that the argo- 
naut is the original constructor of it. 

773. Of the eight arms of the argonaut, six taper gradually 
towards the extremities ; but two are expanded into wide mem- 
branous flaps. From very early times this animal has been 
reputed to swim on the surface of the water, using its arms as 
oars, and spreading these expanded membranes as sails to the 
wind. But it is now known, by accurate observation of the 
living animal, that this is altogether a fiction (though an in- 



799. What of the next variety named ? 
8<X\ Deaeribe th« argonaut. 



ORDER TETRABRANCHIATA. 44 7 

leresring one), and that the expanded arms are spread over the 
sides of the shell, meeting along its keel or edge, and almost 
completely enclosing it. It is by these, indeed, rather than by 
the surface of the body itself, that the calcareous secretion is 
poured out for the enlargement or reparation of the shell. By 
the action of the arms, the argonaut swims backwards in the 
same manner as other Octopi ; and it can also creep along the 
bottom of the sea. 




Shell of Argonaut, with animal in the reputed position. 

774. The only known fossil of this group is the bellerophon^ 
whose shell resembles that of the argonaut. 

Order II. — Tetrabranchiata. 

775. From the remains preserved in a fossil state, the Tetra- 
branchiata appear to have formerly abounded in our seas ; but 
the only living representative of them is the pearly nuaiilus (iV. 
pompilius). In the animal which forms and inhabits the well- 
known chambered shell found on most tropical shores, we ob- 
serve many differences from the usual type of organization in 
the Cephalopods. The arms are very numerous, amounting 
to nearly a hundred ; they are unprovided with suckers; and 
they are short and slender, resembling closely the tentacula of 
many Gasteropods. The mandibles placed in the midst of them 
are strengthened by calcareous deposit, and are not sharp at their 
points or edges ; being moved by powerful muscles, they are 
thus more adapted to break to pieces the hard shells of Mollus- 
ca, than to lacerate the soft bodies of Fishes. 



801. What fabulous idea is corrected ? 
80*2. Describe the -econd order. 



448 ZOOLOGY. 

776. The head of the nautilus supports a large fleshy disk, 
upon which it is believed that the animal crawls upon the bot- 
tom or sides of the ocean, as a snail upon its 
foot. The animal frequents deep waters ; and 
though it is occasionally found at the surface, 
it sinks upon the least alarm, so that it has 
been very rarely captured, although the empty 
shell is so common. This power of rising and 
falling in the water appears in some degree 
connected with the structure of the shell, and 
with the mode in which its chambers commu- 
nicate with the body by a membranous tube 
which passes through all the partitions, and is 
called the siphuncle. But of the mode in which 
this operates, no very satisfactory account has Section of Nantil- 
yet been given.* us Pompilius. 

777. A large number of fossil shells analogous to that of the 
nautilus, and hence called nautilites, are found in various strata, 
from the oldest limestones and sandstones of the Silurian sys- 
tem to those covering the chalk. The fossilized mandibles, 
termed rhynclwlites, which were at first supposed to have be- 
longed to birds, are also abundant in some strata, especially in 
the lias at Lyme Regis. 




CLASS XV.— PTEROPODA. 

778. The Pteropoda are a small but remarkable class of 
Mollusca, distinguished by the adaptation of their structure for 
active locomotion in water only. Their general organization 
is higher than that of the Gasteropods ; and they are particu- 
larly distinguished by the possession of a pair of fin-like organs, 
which are attached to the anterior part of the body, and are evi- 
dently adapted for propelling it rapidly through the water. The 
body is uniformly symmetrical; that is, its two sides precisely 
correspond — a condition obviously favourable for rapid move- 
ment. It is from the wing-like character of these lateral ap- 
pendages that the name of the class is derived ; and the animals 
composing it may be regarded as holding an analogous position 
among the Mollusca to the insects among Articulata, and to 

* See Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise, for an attempt at ex- 
planation. This is deficient in its application to all those cases in 
which the siphuncle is a shelly and not a membranous tube, as in the 
gpirula, ammonite , £' c. 

803. What of the habits of this species of nautilus ? 

804. What of this fifteenth class ? 



CLASS PTEROPODA THE NAUTILUS. 449 

birds in the Vertebrated series. They are unprovided with any 
means of creeping along solid surfaces, and appear only modi- 
fied for swimming. 

779. The dimensions of the animals composing this class are 
uniformly small ; but the number of individuals which asso- 
ciate together in shoals is often enormous, so that the sea 
appears literally alive with them. Some of them are possessed 
of a shell, whilst others are unprovided with such a protection. 
Wherever it exists, it is very light and delicate, and it seldom 
covers more than the posterior part of the body. In one beauti- 
ful little mollusc, the cymbulia, it is of a slipper form; the w T ings 
or fins issuing from the large opening. The head is usually 
prominent, possessing eyes and sensitive tentacula ; and the in- 
terior organization is of a very complex nature. 

780. One of the best known genera of this group is the clio, 
w r hich abounds both in the Arctic and Antarctic seas, and is a 
very important article of food to the whale. The aspect of this 
animal will convey a good general idea of that of the whole 
class. The clio is itself eminently carnivorous ; and in its 
whole organization is fitted to seize and prey upon the yet more 
minute inhabitants of the deep. The six tentacula which are 
seen upon its head, are found, when examined with the micros- 
cope, to be covered with numerous red spots. These, when still 
further magnified, are seen to be evidently distinct organs, 
placed with great regularity, and their number may be roughly 
estimated at about 3000 on each of the tentacula. Every one 
of them is found, when still more closely examined, to consist 
of a transparent cylinder, resembling the cell of a polype, and 
containing about twenty little suckers, which may be protruded 
from its mouth for the purpose of attaching themselves to prey. 
Thus, about 60,000 of these suckers ma)' be computed to exist 
on every one of the tentacula; and the entire head of the little 
clio will be furnished with 360,000 of them. 

781. Besides these organs of prehension, which,' for com- 
plexity of structure, are probably unparalleled in the animal 
creation, the clio possesses two slender tentacula, analogous to 
the feelers of the snail, by which it takes cognisance of the 
presence of food. When its prey is drawn towards the mouth, 
it is reduced by a series of sharp horny teeth, set like those of 
a comb, upon a pair of firm jaw r s ; and it is drawn into the gul- 
let by the tongue, which is covered with regular rows of spiny 
hooklets, all directed backwards, and evidently intended to as- 
sist in the act of swallowing, as well as in the division of the food. 

805. What of their structure ? 

806. What is remarkable in the genus clio ? 

807. How else are they distinguished ? 



450 ZOOLOGY. 

782. The rlio borealis is well known to the whale-fishers and 
others as whale 9 s food; this species swarms in the Arctic seas, 
and, when the weather is calm, these little animals may be 




Clio Borealis. 

seen floating in myriads upon the surface. According to 
Cuvier, the sea is sometimes so glutted with them that the 
whales cannot open their mouths without engulfing thousands 
of these small molluscs. An analogous species, the C. australis, 
appears equally abundant in the polar regions of the southern 
hemisphere. 

783. The hyalcea is a little pteropod possessed of a shell, which 
is formed almost upon the model of that of the Conchifera. It 
consists of two valves or plates applied to the two surfaces of 
the body ; of these one is larger than the other, and from the 
aperture between them, the animal sends forth two large yellow 
and violet wings or sails, by the action of which it moves 
with great velocity on the surface of the sea. " The animals 
of this order," observes Mr. Kirby, "both from the beautiful 
colouring of their filmy sails or wings, and from their number 
and symmetry, are better entitled to the appellation of the but- 
terflies of the ocean, than the scallop-shells (Pedens) which 
have sometimes been so called." Their delicate structure is 
ill adapted to encounter an agitated sea, or the dangers of a 
rocky or shallow shore ; and it is only in the vast and deep 
ocean that their elegant forms and colours, and their graceful 
movements, delight the mariner's eye, when the glassy surface 
of the still sea reflects the rays of the setting sun. 

808. What other variety is described ? 

809. Describe the last species named. 



CLASS GASTEROPODA. 451 



CLASS XVI.— GASTEROPODA. 

784. It is in the animals of this class that we find the cha- 
racters of the Mollusca most prominently displayed, namely, 
the high development of the nutritive apparatus, with very 
feeble powers of locomotion. In all the more perfect forms, 
which are usually carnivorous, a distinct and prominent head 
exists, furnished not only with tentacula or feelers, but also with 
eyes, and with what appear to be rudiments of organs of smell 
and hearing. In this part, we usually perceive that symmetry 
or correspondence between the two halves, which has been 
spoken of as characterizing the animal organs in general; 
whilst in the posterior part of the body, which is made up of 
the organs of vegetative life, this symmetry is seldom to be dis- 
cerned. The whole organization of the animals of this class 
is superior to that of the Conchifera. None of them are neces- 
sarily attached by their shells to other bodies, although in some 
instances they become so in consequence of their peculiar 
habits, as will be presently explained. They have the power 
of crawling from one place to another, by means of the ex- 
panded muscular disk or foot with which they are furnished; 
and as this foot proceeds from the belly or under surface of the 
animal, the class receives the name given to it. The mode in 
which it is used may be well seen by placing a snail or slug on 
a piece of glass, and looking at it from the under side. Many 
of those which inhabit the water can swim with considerable 
rapidity; but this power is chiefly possessed by those species 
which have no shell, or but a very slight one, and can bend 
their bodies in any direction. 

785. The general character of the shelly structure, where it 
exists, is the same as in the Conchifera. It is in general com- 
posed of one piece, and called a univalve ; in some instances, 
however, it is a multivalve ; and in many species there is a small 
operculum or lid to the mouth of the shell, which may in some 
degree be regarded in the light of a second valve. The body 
is attached to the interior of the shell by muscles, which can 
withdraw it or project it at the will of the animal; and the 
operculum can be drawn down upon the mouth with considera- 
ble force. It is the habit of some species (as the limpet and 
haliotis) to attach themselves by the expanded surface of the 
foot to rocks, &c. ; these are able to draw the shell closely down 
upon the rock, with great muscular power, just as the Conchi- 



810. Describe the general structure of this sixteenth class. 

811. What varieties are described here I 



452 



ZOOLOGY. 



fera draw together their valves — a short interval existing, how- 
ever, when the animal is not alarmed, for the admission of water 
or air to the cavity of the shell. A very slight irritation will 
cause the animal to draw the shell close down on the rock, 
from which it is then very difficult to detach it. 

786. The shell is formed, as in other Mollusca, by an exuda- 
tion from the mantle ; and is enlarged at intervals, in accord- 
ance with the increasing size of the animal. In some, the 
addition of an entire new interior layer, projecting beyond the 
old one, is made at every such period as in the Conchifera; 
but in others, the new matter is secreted only at the edge of 
the previous shell, and is joined on, as it were, to it; in these 
the line of addition is usually marked by a prominent rib on the 
exterior, but the interior is beautifully smoothed oft'. 

787. The forms of the shell in 
this class vary extremely ; but 
those which appear most widely 
separated may be shown to be 
connected by intermediate links. 
The open cone of the limpet may 
be regarded as one of the simplest 
forms. In an allied genus, the 
pileopsis, we find the point, pro- 
longed, and somewhat rolled upon 
itself; and, by various links of 
this kind, we are brought to the 
regular spiral of the snail. From 
this we may return to the long 
straight form, by the scalaria, in 
which the coils of the spire touch 
each other only by their ribs ; and 
by the vermetus and magilus, in 
which the commencement only 
of the shell possesses a spiral 
form, the remainder being pro- 
longed into a straight tube. When 
the shell is spiral, and the point 
and mouth are not in the same 
plane, a sort of central pillar is 
formed, like that round which a 
spiral staircase is constructed. 
This is called the columella ; and 
it is usually grooved at its lower 

part for the passage of water to Murex Tenuispina. 

the respiratory organs which are placed within the shell. 




812. What various forms of shell are cited ? 



GASTEROPODA PTEROCERAS SCORPIO. 453 

788. The margin of the shell is not unfrequently fringed with 
spines, as in the murex : these are formed, like similar appen- 
dages in the Conchifera, by prolongation of the mantle ; and 
the dissimilar number of them in different specimens has 
caused the establishment of many species, which, now that the 
habits of the animal are better known, prove to be but different 
forms of the same. For it has been ascertained that the 
animal has not only the power of forming new spines, but of 
removing old ones, especially such as would interfere with the 
continued growth of the shell. The edge of the mantle is ap- 
plied against their bases, and a kind of absorption of shelly 
matter seems to take place — a notch being formed, which causes 
them to be easily broken off. Various analogous changes are 
produced by a similar action in other shells, the portions first 
formed being wholly or partially removed. Sometimes the 
walls of the older portion are thinned for the purpose of light- 
ening the shell ; and in other cases the top of the cone is alto- 
gether removed, a groove having been formed around its inte- 
rior, which renders it so weak as to be easily broken off: in 
these last cases, the animal previously withdraws itself from 
the part that is thus to be separated, and throws a new partition 
across, by which the top of the shell remains closed after the 
division. A shell thus deprived of its apex is said to be decol- 
lated. 

789. It is not only by such removals that the form of uni- 
valve shells undergoes a great change. Sometimes additions 
are made to them, which completely alter their figure, so that 
two individuals of different ages would be scarcely supposed at 
first sight to belong to the same tribe. But in all these cases, 
the form of the young shell may be traced in that of the adult. 
The accompanying figures of the pteroceras show this change 
in a moderate degree ; in other genera it is much more remark- 
able. In another group of shells, of which the common cowry 
is an example, a still more curious alteration takes place. In 
the young shell, the edge is sharp, and the mouth or opening 
of considerable breadth. This state continues as long as the 
shell is increasing in size ; but when it has arrived at adult age, 
the outer lip is thickened, and brought so near the other as to 
leave but a narrow chink between them. At the same time, a 
prolongation of the mantle on each side deposits a new layer 
of shelly matter on the outside of the previous one; and as the 
two prolongations meet along the back (the line of their junc- 
tion being usually evident on the shell), this additional coat, 



813. What peculiar powers are ascribed to them ? 

814. Describe the changes in the shell ? 

815. What of the diagrams ? 



454 



ZOOLOGY. 



which is very hard and porcvllanous in its texture, encloses the 
whole previous shell. 

* Young Shell. 





Adult Shell. 
Pteroceras Scorpio. 

790. The operculum is principally confined to the aquatic 
Gasteropoda. It is sometimes of the same texture as the shell 
itself, and sometimes horny. It does not always close the en- 
tire mouth of the shell, but it is sometimes made to fit it, at all 
stages of growth, with the most beautiful accuracy. Some of 
the land species also possess an operculum ; but in general 
they are destitute of it, and they form during hybernation a 
temporary closure to the mouth of the shell, by a viscid secre- 
tion, which hardens into a thin plate, and includes within it a 
bubble of air. Behind this, a second, and f.ven a third, similar 
partition is occasionally found, as in the common snail. 

791. The subdivision of this extensive class into orders, may 
be best aifected by arranging the different tribes according to 



81G. What other changes a> 
817. VVhui other spears ifl 



GASTF.ROPODA- — CYPRJEA KX '.NTI1FMA. 



45' 



the character and position of the respiratory organs. The fol- 
lowing are those adopted by Cuvier. 

Young Shell. 




Adult Shell. 
Cyprsea Exanthema, 

(1.) Pulmonea. — These are terrestrial species, adapted to 
breathe air by means of a pulmonary sac, or air-cavity, the 
orifice of which they can open or close at will. Many have no 
shell. 

(n.) Nudibra\chiata. — These, as well as all the succeed- 
ing orders, are aquatic, being adapted to respire water by gills, 
like other Mollusca. The animals of this order have no shell, 
and they carry their branchiae, which present various forms, on 
some part of the back. 

(in.) Ixferobraxchiata. — These are similar in many re- 
spects to the preceding, but the branchiae are situated under the 
margins of the mantle. 

(it.) Tectibraxchiata. — In the greater part of the animals 
contained in this order, the branchiae are situated upon the back, 
or on the side, and are covered in by a fold of the mantle, and 
this fold usually includes a shell more or less developed. 

(v.) Heteropoda. — This is a small order, characterized by 
the peculiar form of the foot, which is not spread out hohzon- 



818. Describe Cither's several divisions. 



450 



ZOOLOGY. 



tally, but compressed vertically into a sort of fin. They carry 
their branchiae, the tufts of which are generally protected by a 
shell, upon the back. 

(vi.) Pectinibranchiata. — The animals of this order, to 
which belong all the spiral shells, except those of the Pulmonea, 
are so named from the comb-like form of their gills, which are 
usually situated in a cavity behind the head, corresponding with 
the respiratory sac of the Pulmonea. This is by far the most 
numerous order of the whole. 

(vn.) Tubulibrajchiata. — These have many affinities with 
the last order ; but the shell is spiral only at its apex, where it 
is commonly fixed to (or rather enclosed by) other bodies, and 
is prolonged in the shape of a tube more or less regular. 

(viii.) Scutibranchiata. — In these, also, there is a consid- 
erable resemblance to the Pectinibranchiata in the form and 
position of the gills ; but the shells are very open, scarcely in 
any degree spiral, and cover the body and gills like a shield ; 
and they also differ essentially in their mode of reproduction. 

(ix.) Cyclobranchiata. — These molluscs have their gills 
disposed in little tufts under the margins of the mantle, much 
as in the Inferobranchiata ; but they have shells, which are 
spread out over the body, and differ from that order in their 
mode of reproduction. 

Order I. — Pulmonea. 

792. Although the greater part of the molluscs of this order 
live on land, some are aquatic ; but these, like the aquatic air- 
breathing Insects and Vertebrata, are obliged to come occa- 
sionally to the surface to breathe. They all feed chiefly upon 
vegetables, and many of them exclusively so ; but some are 
extremely voracious, and will devour almost any organized 
matter that falls in their way. They are diffused through all 
climates, particular species being restricted to each. Those 
without a shell, commonly known as slugs, constitute the family 
of Ltmacin^. In the common slugs, as in most of the terres- 
trial species of this order, we observe a prominent head, with 
four tentacula, and at the end of the longer pair the eyes are 
situated. These tentacula can be drawn inwards by a process 
resembling the inversion of the finger of a glove. On the back 
there is a kind of shield or disk formed by the mantle, which 
sometimes encloses a small shell. This shield covers the pul- 
monary sac, the opening of which is in its right side, and the 
head can be withdrawn beneath it. The testacella is a kind of 
slug, which has the disk of the mantle at the posterior extremity, 
and this always contains a small shell. This animal, which 

819. What of the first order and family ? 






ORDER PULIYIONEA THE SLUGS, SNAILS, &C. 457 

feeds largely on earth-worms, is abundant in the south of France, 
and has lately been introduced into the gardens of this country, 
where it is multiplying rapidly. 

793. The snails and their allies, constituting the family Heli- 
€iNM y are closely allied to the slugs in organization ; differing 
in but little else than the possession of a shell into which the 
body may be withdrawn. The common garden snail of this 
country, and the helix pomatia, or edible snail of France and 
Italy, are well-known examples of this family. More striking 
ones are to be found, however, in tropical climates, where some 
species of the genus Bulimus attain to great size, the eggs being 
as large as a pigeon's. In some species, the direction of the 
coils of the shell is opposite to what it is in other spiral shells ; 
such are said to be reversed. A European species of this genus 
is one most remarkable for the decollation of its shell. An 




Achatina Zebra. 



Achatma Virginea. 



other large snail of tropical climates is the achatina, which feeds 
on trees and shrubs, chiefly on the western coast of Africa and 



820. Describe the second family. 

821. What species is presented in the diagram ? 

822. What other varieties are named ? 




458 



ZOOLOGV. 



in the West Indies. Several of its species are distinguished by 
the beauty of their colours. 

794. The aquatic Pulmonea have only two tentacula. From 
ehe necessity of coming to the surface to breathe, they can only 
live in water of inconsiderable depth ; and they chiefly inhabit 
ponds and shallow streams, or the banks of rivers. Some, 
however, live on the sea-shore. The Planorbis, the shell of 
which is quite flat, having all its coils upon the same level, is 
a very common genus in this country ; as is also the Lymnecea, 
which feeds upon seeds as well as the softer parts of plants, 
and the stomach of which has a very muscular gizzard. 

Order II. — Nudibranchiata. 

795. The animals of this order, which might be designated 
sea-slugs, are all marine ; and, being adapted to breathe wa- 
ter at any depths, and also, in many instances, to swim with 
facility, they are often found at a great distance from land. 
When they swim, it is usually in a reversed position, the foot 
being turned upwards ; this is made concave by muscular ac- 
tion, so as to serve as a kind of boat, the buoyancy of which 
keeps the animal at the surface without effort. This order is 
a very numerous one, and some of its species attain a consid- 
erable size ; but, from their habits, little is known of them. 
The eggs of many species are united together in a ribbon-like 
form, and the mass is extremely large in proportion to the size 
of the animals. The doris and tritonia are inhabitants of the 
British seas, and are occasionally found on our shores. The 
latter is remarkable for being able to produce a sound resem- 
bling the clear tone of a small bell sharply struck. One of the 
most interesting forms in this order is that of the glaucus, an in- 
habitant of the Mediterranean. It is distinguished by the great 
prolongation of the gills into fan-like appendages, by means of 
which the animals swim on their backs with great agility. 
They are beautifully coloured, having silver hues intermixed 
with azure-blue, whence their name is derived. 



Order III. — Inferobranchiata. 

796. The few molluscs contained in this order differ but little 
from the last, except in the position of their gills, and their in- 
capability of swimming. They are, therefore, confined to the 
sea-shore ; where they subsist, as do the Nudibranchiata, upon 
sea-weeds and other aquatic plants. 

823. Describe the second order. 

824. What is remarkable in the species named ! 



ORDER TECTIBRANCHIATA THE APLYSIA. 450 



Order IV. — Tectibranchiata. 
797. This order begins to show an approximation towards 
that disposition of the gills which characterizes the great bulk 
of the class; the animals composing it are marine, and live 
chiefly on the shore or on floating sea-weeds. A very charac- 
teristic example of the order is the aplysia, commonly termed 
sea-hare, which is abundant on many parts of the British 
coasts. Its vernacular name is probably derived from the pe- 
culiar form of the superior pair of tentacula, which are flattened 
and hollowed, like the ears of a quadruped. The head has a 
very distinct neck. The branchiae consist of leaflets arranged 
in a complex form, and situated on the back, beneath a fold of 
the mantle, which also encloses a flat horny shell. The diges- 
tive apparatus is very complicated, consisting of a membranous 
crop like that of birds, a gizzard having cartilaginous walls, 
and a third stomach beset with sharp hooks in its interior. 
These animals feed on sea-weed. They are very sluggish in 
their movements ; but have a peculiar means of defence, con- 



<i4 




Bursatella Leachii. 



sistingof a deep purple liquid, which they can discharge from 
the edge of the mantle when alarmed, and by which the sur- 
rounding water is discloured, so that they cannot be discerned. 

825. How are the third and fourth orders distinguished ? 

826. Describe the several species. 



4G0 



ZOOLOGY. 



In the Bulkpa, an animal which is found on oozy bottoms in 
almost every shore, the shell is calcareous, and is more or less 
rolled into a spiral. It is still, however, enveloped in a fold 
of the mantle, and is much too small to contain the ani- 
mal. The Bursatella is a very curious allied genus, in which 
the body has a somewhat globular form ; there is no trace of 
shell; and the branchiae project considerably from the cavity 
formed for their protection. It is an inhabitant of the Indian 
Ocean, and sometimes attains considerable size. 

Order V. — Hetropoda. 

798. This is a very small order, but the animals contained in 
it differ remarkably from all other molluscs. At the edge of 
the vertical muscular plate, which has been mentioned as oc- 
cupying the position of the foot in the other Gasteropoda, is a 
small conical sucker, by which the animal can attach itself, 
and which represents the expanded disk of other orders. The 
gills are placed on the back, and close behind them are the 
heart and liver, which seem, as it were, external to the body. 
In one of the few genera which the order contain, these parts 
are protected by a small shell ; whilst in another there is none. 
The body, consisting of a semi-transparent gelatinous substance, 
enclosed in a muscular envelope, is elongated, and generally 
terminated by a compressed tail ; this body can be distended 
with water. The animal swims in a reversed position, the fin- 
like foot being uppermost, and the shell depending below. 
They are limited to warm latitudes ; one species of the Carin- 
aria inhabits the Mediterranean, and occasionally appears on 
particular coasts in large numbers ; whilst others are peculiar 
to the tropics, where most of the allied genera also exist. The 
shell of the Carinaria is interesting, on account both of its ex- 
treme delicacy and fragility, and on account of the strong resem- 
blance which that of the argonaut or paper nautilus bears to it. 

Order VI. — Pectinibranchiata* 

799. This order is not only by far the most numerous in the 
whole class, but contains the animals which may be regarded 
as its most characteristic examples. They have all two tenta- 
cula and two eyes, sometimes raised on stalks as in the snail. 
The mouth is prolonged into a sort of proboscis ; and the 
tongue is furnished with little hooks or recurved spines, which 
enable it to wear down the hardest bodies by slow and oft- 
repeated action. The cavity in which the gills are fixed occu 
pies the last whorl of the shell ; and in some of the order there 
is a tubular prolongation of the mantle, termed the siphon, for 



827. What of the fifth order? 



ORDER PEOTINIBRANCHIATA CLASSIFICATION. 401 

the purpose of conveying water into this cavity, so that the 
animal can breathe without leaving its shelter. By the presence 
or absence of this organ, and by the form of the shell, which 
here appears to bear a sufficiently constant relation with that 
of the animals, this large group may be arranged under the fol- 
lowing families : — (i.) Trochoids, in which there is no siphon, 
and which have the mouth closed by an operculum, (n.) Capu- 
loidj5, which have a wide open shell, very much like that of the 
limpets, without operculum or notch at the margin for the pas- 
sage of a siphon, (in.) Buccinoidje, which have a spiral shell 
and a canal at the end of the columella for the passage of the 
siphon ; this is sometimes extremely prolonged, as in the mu- 
rex ; and the genera exhibiting this character are all carnivo- 
rous in their habits. 

800. (i.) Of the family Trochoids, a characteristic illus- 
tration is the common periwinkle of our coasts ; but tropical 
species attain a much larger size, and are among the most mas- 
sive of univalves. Among the most remarkable species of this 
family, which is a very extensive one, may be mentioned the 
Trochus agglutinans, peculiar on account of its habit of gluing 
and attaching to its shell, as it grows, different foreign 
bodies, such as gravel, fragments of other shells, &c. ; by this 
its shell acquires a weight and power of resistance, which the 
matter secreted from the animal itself is not sufficient to give. 
Many of this group have the form, and in some degree the 
habits, of the Helicinae, being able to live out of the water, and 
even ascending trees, in search of food. Of those confined to 
water, some can only live in fresh streams, and others in the 
sea ; whilst some species appear to flourish as well in either, 
and fix themselves to situations at the mouths of rivers, where 
the tide will wash them with salt and fresh water alternately. 
A very remarkable marine species is the janthiaa, or violet- 
snail, which possesses a peculiar floating apparatus, composed 
of a number of foam-like vesicles, attached to its foot, and ap- 
parently formed by it. When the sea is calm, these beautiful 
animals may be seen floating over it in considerable numbers ; 
but when rough, they speedily sink, absorbing, in some un- 
known manner, the air which these vesicles contain. To the 
under surface of the float they also attach their eggs. When 
alarmed, they emit a deep blue fluid, which tinges the sea 
around, and hides them from their enemies. An allied genus, 
the Litiopa, lives on the gulf-weed, whence it has the power of 
suspending itself by a thread, as a spider from the ceiling ; and 

828. Describe the general characters of the sixth order. 

829. How is it divided into families? 

830. What of the first variety ? 



1G2 



ZOOLOGY. 



by the same thread it can remount at pleasure to the surface of 
the weed. 

801. (n.) The animals of the small family Capulotd^s were 
formerly arranged with the Patella or limpet tribe, under the 
order Cyclobranchiata, but differ from them in having the gills 
comb-shaped, and arranged in a cavity behind the head, as in 
the other Pectinibranchiata. As the species it contains present 
little of general interest, this slight notice is sufficient. 

802. Of the BucciNOTDas, the common whelk (buccinum unda- 
tum) of our own coast is a characteristic example. This 
animal seems to be omnivorous, devouring sea-weed and ani- 
mal matter with nearly equal readiness ; its eggs are laid in 
adherent masses, which are much larger than the animal itself 





Buccinum Undatum. 

in its usual condition. The animals inhabiting the greater 
proportion of the univalve marine shells preserved in cabinets, 
bear a considerable resemblance to this in structure and mode 
of life, and present no peculiarities worth special notice. The 
varieties in the form and structure of the shell are very interest- 
ing to the naturalist; but the mere technical description of 
them would be superfluous here. The following well-known 
tribes, however, may be mentioned as contributing to form this 
family: — The Cones, Cowries, Volutes, Ovulae, Olives, Whelks, 
Helmets, with the Murex, Fusus, Strombus, Pteroceras, Pyrula, 
&c. — these last having the siphon very long, and being for the 
most part carnivorous. 



831. What various species are named ? 

832. Describe the other varieties here cited. 
8'.<3. What of the diagram ? 



ORDER TTlirLIBRANCHlATA. 463 



Order VII. — Tubu.ihranchiata. 

803. This group, though small, possesses many points of in- 
terest. The irregular shelly tube which is formed by some of the 
animals composing it, so much resembles that formed by certain 
Annelida, as to be scarcely distinguishable from it, although the 
animal is distinctly molluscous in the one case and articulated 
in the other. Hence, before the animals received that attention 
which was at first given to their shells, these were associated 
with the Serpulae. The order contains only three genera; and 
of these, two have the same habits, to which their power of adapt- 
ing their structure is very remarkable. The shell is formed in 
the first instance upon the spiral plan ; but the animals frequent 
coral-banks, and having no proper foot, and no other means of 
locomotion, they are liable to be enclosed in the coral with its 
advancing growth. They avoid the ill effects of this by pro- 
longing the cavity of the shell in a line more or less straight, 
so as to keep its orifice on a level with the surface of the coral, 
so that it can never be closed up. All molluscous animals 
seem to avoid living in a cavity which is too large for them; 
and when they withdraw from a portion of the shell which they 
no longer inhabit, they either fill it up or throw a partition 
across it. The magilus does the first, and the vermetus the se- 
cond. The shell of the magilus is sometimes found buried in 
madrepore, the tubular part having a length of as much as three 
feet, and the part first formed being entirely solidified. On the 
other hand, the vermetus, which lives in the same circum- 
stances, throws a partition across the portion of the shell it has 
quitted ; and this is renewed as often as it extends its tube, to 
keep pace with the growth of the coral, and quits its lower part ; 
so that a series of little chambers is thus formed, which may 
be compared in some degree to those of the chambered Ceph- 
alopoda, but are not connected by a siphon. The third genus of 
this order is the Siliquaria, the tube of which has a fissure along 
its whole extent, which gives admission, through a correspond- 
ing fissure in the mantle, to the water required for the supply 
of the gills, which are disposed in a beautiful fringe along its 
entire length. 

Order VIII. — Scutibranchiata. 

804. This order is also a small one, containing but two prin- 
cipal genera, which do not differ widely from the Limpets, ex- 
cept in the disposition of the gills. The shells are very open, 
without an operculum; and the greater number are not in any 

834 How is the seventh order characterized ? 
835. What of the eighth order, and its species? 



464 ZOOLOGY. 

degree spiral. In the haliotis, the shell is slightly twisted ; and 
from a faint resemblance it is thought to bear to the ear of a 
quadruped, it has been called the sea-ear. This animal, in its 
living state, is one of the most beautiful of Gasteropods, on ac- 
count of the variety and richness of its colours. Its shell, 
when the surface is polished, possesses a pearly lustre with 
resplendent metallic hues. It is consequently much sought 
for as an ornament. The shell of the fissurella and its allies 
closely resembles that of the limpet ; but it has a small aper- 
ture at the top, through which the water is introduced that sup- 
plies the branchiae; these are pectinated, like those of the sixth 
order, and arranged in a cavity on the back, as in them. 

Order IX. — Cyclobranchiata. 

805. The general form of the Limpets, which principally 
compose this order, is well known ; and the peculiarity in the 
position of their gills has already been mentioned. They have 
a very long ribbon-like tongue, covered with spines, and this 
appears to be their principal means of obtaining their food, 
which chiefly consists of sea-weeds. When they desire to 
move from one part of the rock on which they affix themselves 
to another, they crawl slowly, by the elongation and contrac- 
tion of the fleshy disk that constitutes the foot, just as does the 
slug. At other times, especially when left dry by the tide, they 
are quite inert, unless an effort is made to move them, which 
they will resist by drawing themselves hard down upon their 
base. Closely allied to the Limpets in general structure, but 
differing remarkably in the formation of the shell, are the Chitons, 
of which some small species inhabit our shores, but which at- 
tain to much greater size between the tropics. Their shell is 
composed of a number of plates arranged behind one another 
with great regularity, and connected by a very complex series of 
ligaments and muscles, which reminds the naturalist of those 
which unite and move the different segments in the articulated 
animals. The edges of these plates are bound together by the 
mantle, which sometimes assumes the appearance of shagreen, 
and is sometimes beset with spines, hairs, or bristles. The 
Chitons are the only Mollusca which exhibit any approach to 
the articulated structure ; and they seem to connect these two 
sub-kingdoms through a' group of "Crustacea now altogether ex- 
tinct, the Trilobites, which had probably a considerable affinity 
with them. 



836. Describe the ninth order. 

837. What other groups are describe 



CLASS CONCHIFERA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 



CLASS XVIL— CONCHIFERA. 

806. This class is nearly synonymous with that of the bivalves 
in the Linnaean arrangement, since all the animals which con- 
struct bivalve shells belong to it; but it also contains a few 
species whose shells are multivalve, and some others in which 
there appears at first sight an entire departure from the usual 
form. The molluscs belonging to this class are, in common 
with the Tunicata, destitute of a head; that is, the mouth is 
not situated upon a prominent part of the body, nor assisted in 
its choice of food by organs of special sensation in its neigh- 
bourhood; but the entrance to the stomach is buried between 
the folds of the mantle. Hence these two groups were asso- 
ciated by Cuvier into one class, to which he gave the name of 
Acephala, Headless Molluscs ; but there is quite sufficient 
reason for separating them, on account of the superior organi- 
zation of the group at present under consideration. 

807. The part of the structure of these animals which is - 
best known, is the shell This is composed of particles of lime, 
exuded from the surface of the mantle, in combination with a 
gluey secretion, by which they are united together. If one of 
the valves of a bivalve shell be examined, it will be seen to con- 
sist of a number of layers, of which the outer one is the small- 
est, each inner one projecting beyond the one which covers it. 
This is more evident in such shells as that of the oysters, in 
which the layers adhere loosely together, than in others in 
which they are more compact. The shelly matter is thrown 
out at intervals from the surface of the mantle ; and as the ani- 
mal enlarges at each interval, the new layer extends beyond the 
old one. In this manner, a constant relation is preserved be- 
tween the size of the animal and that of its shell ; and the addi- 
tion of the newly-formed portions, not to the edge only, but to 
the interior of the whole previous shell, strengthens the latter 
in proportion to its increase in size. The regular coloured 
markings often seen on the valves are due to the secretion of 
colouring matter, which is incorporated with the calcareous 
exudation, from glands in particular portions of the mantle; 
and the spines or other prolongations which many shells pos- 
sess, are formed by little processes or extensions of the mantle 
for that object. 

808. The valves are connected together in various ways. 
In the first place they are jointed by a hinge, which is in some 

838. How is the seventeenth class distinguished ? 

839. What of the peculiarities of shell ? 



466 ZOOLOGY. 

instances so firm and complicated, that it holds them together 
when all the soft parts have been removed. This hinge is 
sometimes formed by the locking of a continuous ridge on one 
valve into a groove in the other, and sometimes by a number 
of little projections, or teeth, which fit into corresponding hollows 
in the opposite valve. In the neighbourhood of the hinge 
(sometimes outside, sometimes inside, or both) is fixed the 
ligament, which is composed of an elastic animal substance; 
this answers the purpose of binding the valves together, and at 
the same time of keeping them a little apart, which may be re- 
garded as their natural position. When the animal wishes 
to draw the valves closely together, it does so by means of the 
adductor muscle, which is fixed to the interior of both valves at 
some distance from the hinge, and of which the insertion can 
be easily traced by a somewhat rough depression of the inte- 
rior surface of each valve. In some Conchifera this muscle is 
single, and in others it is double, the two parts being even at 
opposite ends of the valve. Upon this character it has been 
proposed to found the primary division of the class into orders ; 
but the classification thus formed is not a natural one, inas- 
much as it brings together kinds which have little resemblance, 
and widely separates others which are closely allied. 

809. In order to describe the general structure of the Con- 
chifera, it will be advantageous to select some particular illus- 
tration ; and the common mussel is well adapted to this purpose. 
On opening such a shell, it is seen that the two valves are lined 
by a membrane which corresponds with the tunic or mantle 
of the Tunicata. This is divided into two halves along a con- 
siderable part of the edge of the valves, but it is united near 
the large end. In some Conchifera, as will be presently noticed, 
the two halves of the mantle are separated along their whole 
extent; whilst in others, as in the Tunicata, they are com- 
pletely closed, with the exception of the two orifices for the 
ingress and egress of water, which are sometimes drawn out 
into long tubes. In the muscle the water enters through a slit 
in the closed part of the mantle, and passes out by another in 
its neighbourhood ; but the water thus introduced is principally 
for the supply of the gills, as the mouth or entrance to the sto- 
mach is placed at the small end of the shell, where the mantle 
is quite open, and can take in food from the surrounding water, 
which comes into free contact with it. The gills in all Con- 
chifera consist of four ribbon-like fringes, fixed to the mantle 
along the edge of the shell most distant from the hinge. Near 
the small end of the shell is seen the stomach, with the short 

840. Describe the structure of the valves. 
H41. What of the mussel tribe ? 



CLASS CONCHIFERA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 



467 



tube leading to it, the orifice of which is furnished with four 
tentacula or feelers. To the right of this is seen the long and 
complicated intestinal tube, with the liver lying in separate 
masses amongst its folds. And nearer the large end, the cavity 
of the shell is chiefly occupied by the ovarium, in which the 
eggs are formed. Close to this is the powerful adductor muscle, 
by which the valves can be drawn together with considerable 
force. The intestinal tube is seen to terminate near the open- 
ing at the posterior (or right hand) extremity of the shell, which 
discharges its contents, and serves for the exit of the respira- 
tory current. 




Interior of Mussel : a, right valve ; b, left valve ; c, hinge, d, stomach ; e, ten- 
tacula ; f, foot ; g, byssus ; h, branchial orifice ; i, vent ; &, termination of 
intestine ; I, liver ; m, gills ; n, adductor muscle ; o, ovarium. 

810. The foregoing description will apply, with slight varia- 
tions, to the structure of almost all Conchifera; but we have 
now to notice two organs, which are absent in some, and in 
others more largely developed than in the present instance. 
From the lower part of the shell passing out between the sepa- 
rate edges of the mantle, is seen the foot, a fleshy muscular organ, 
somewhat resembling the tongue of higher animals, and not con- 
taining any hard support, or being protected by any envelope. 
This foot, which is the only special locomotive organ possessed 
by the mollusca of this class, serves a great variety of purposes, 
sometimes enabling the animal to leap with considerable agility 
along a hard surface, sometimes being used to bore into the 
sand or mud, and sometimes serving only to affix the animal 
to some firm support. From the base of this foot there proceeds, 
in the muscle, a band of hair-like filaments, forming what is 
called the byssus. These sometimes exist in great abundance, 
and serve, by being fixed by their extremities to the shore or 



842 Describe their peculiar struc'ure. 
843. What of the diagram ? 



468 ZOOLOGY. 

bottom of the sea, to anchor the shell, and yet to allow the ani- 
mal considerable freedom of motion within certain limits ' 
Frequently the byssus is altogether absent. 

811. The Conchifera have usually more power of locomotion 
than the Tunicata. Some of them, however, as the oyster, are 
attached to one spot during all but the earliest period of their 
lives. Others adhere by the byssus, or by the foot, by which 
they obtain a certain range ; and others are free during the 
whole of their lives, swimming and leaping with considerable 
agility. In these movements some of them appear to be directed 
by powers of sight, and in these are perceived small red spots 
at the edges of the mantle, which are believed to be eyes. They 
do not appear to have much choice of food, nor are they pro- 
vided with any other means of obtaining it than the ciliary action 
which introduces constant currents of water into the mouth. In 
general they do not attain any great size, but they are on the 
whole larger than any Molluscs except the Cephalopoda ; and 
a few species attain considerable dimensions — a pinna having 
been known four feet long, and a tridacne (giant clamp-shell) 
having been known to weigh 600 lbs. They are distributed 
over the whole globe, principally frequenting the shores or shal- 
lows. Each region has certain species peculiar or most abund- 
ant in it, and there are few which are not limited to one hemi- 
sphere. The temperate zone appears as favourable to the 
development and multiplication of some species, as the torrid 
zone to others ; but the largest kinds are only found in warm 
latitudes. 

812. In the subdivision of this class into orders, the degree in 
which the two lobes of the mantle adhere along the margin of 
the shell, is the character chiefly rested on ; the presence or ab- 
sence of the foot, and of the byssus, also, are important charac- 
ters ; and along with these the structure of the hinge should be 
attended to. On these grounds, the five following orders are 
established by Cuvier : (i.) Ostraceje, the Oyster tribe, in which 
the two halves of the mantle are separated the whole way round, 
and the foot absent or very small: they are usually fixed by the 
shell to solid bodies, (n.) Mytilace;e, the Mussel tribe, in which 
the mantle remains open in front (at the end where the mouth 
is situated) and close behind, an aperture being left for the 
egress of the fluid. They have a foot strong enough to crawl 
by, and commonly affix themselves by a byssus. (in.) Cha- 
mace;b, or Clamp-shells ; in these the mantle is closed, with the 
exception of three apertures, two of which are for the ingress 

844. What unusual organs are described ? 

845. What of their locomotion ? 
N46. How are they diversified ? 



OSTRACEjE THE OYSTERS, PECTENS, &C. 409 

and egress of water, and the third for the passage of the foot, 
which is here usually more powerful, (iv.) Cardiaceje, or 
Cockle tribe, in which the mantle is not only closed, but extend- 
ed at the respiratory apertures into tubes of greater or less 
length. The foot is very strong, (v.) The Inclusa, in which 
the mantle has only one opening for the passage of the foot; 
at the posterior end it is prolonged into tubes of great length, 
that can be extended far beyond the shell, as in the common 
Sukns or Razor-shells. 

Order I.— Ostraceae. 
813. The Ostraceae, of all these orders, exhibit the nearest 
approach to the Tunicata, both in the absence of the foot, the 
entirely fixed condition of the body and in the low grade of 
their organization in general. The shell itself is usually fixed 
by adhesion to other masses ; sometimes the animal is attached 
by a byssus ; and some species, which are unattached, have a 
slight power of changing their place, by suddenly closing their 
valves, and squirting out the water that was between them. 
In the true Oysters, there are no teeth in the hinge, which is 
held together by the ligament only. Several species exist, 
some of which are as abundant in tropical regions as the com- 
mon oyster of temperate seas is on the shores of Britain. Their 
continued abundance, notwithstanding the large quantities 
constantly being consumed, is less surprising when we reflect 
upon their astonishing fertility; as many as 1,200,000 eggs 
having been detected in a single individual. The Pecteus have 
a hinge like that of the oysters, but differ in having the surface of 
the valves raised up into ribs, and in 
having two angular projections, com- 
monly termed ears, by the sides of 
the hinge. Many of them are very ele- 
gantly coloured ; and they are the most 
active of the whole order, being en- 
tirely unattached, and swimming with 
greater quickness than would have 
been expected from their imperfect 
means of locomotion. The Anomia 
are nearly allied to the oysters, 
but have a remarkable peculiarity in 

the structure of the shell. The greater Anomia Ephippium. 
part of the adductor muscle passes through a fissure in one of the 
valves to be attached to a third plate, sometimes shelly and some- 

847. Into what five orders does Cuvier divide them ? 
SAP. What is remarkable in the first order? 
1" What varieties are described ? 




• i-, ZOOLOGY. 

times horny, by which the animal adheres to foreign bodies ; the 
remainder joins one valve to the other. Thus, we have a multivalve 
shell formed by an animal which, both in structure and habits, 
corresponds closely with the bivalve oyster. The SpondyH are 
also allied to the oysters, but have a more complex hinge, 
each valve having two teeth which enter into pits in the 
opposite valve ; one species is remarkable for the distance which 
often intervenes between the different layers of which the con- 
vex valve is composed; a series of cavities being thus formed, 
which bear a slight resemblance to those of a chambered shell, 
and which usually contain water. 

814. The foregoing tribes of Ostraceae, and many more which 
might be enumerated, are distinguished by the presence of only 
one adductor muscle ; in the remainder of the order, as in 
most other bivalves, there exists a second. Among these may 
be first mentioned the etheria, which is a sort of fresh-water 
oyster. The Aviculce, which furnish the greater number of 
the pearls so highly prized as ornaments, are commonly called 
Pearl-Oysiersy from their general resemblance to the same tribe. 
The valves are extended into ears or wings, on each side of the 
hinge; and these are frequently very long on one side. The 
pearl is produced from the same substance as that which lines 
the shell, and which is generally known as mother-of-pearl. 
It seems usually to result from some irritation of the mantle, 
which causes it to excrete an unusual quantity of pearly matter 
at one spot; and grains of sand, or other small particles which, 
by getting between the membrane and the shell, seem to have 
caused such an irritation, are often found in the centres of 
pearls. Sometimes, again, pearls are found at points where the 
shell has been pierced by a boring animal ; and it has been pro- 
posed to cause the formation of pearls by perforating the shell; 
but the pearls so produced seldom have that regularity in their 
form which is as important to their value as is their size. 
Pearls are also produced within many other shells. The Pinner, 
or Wing-Shells, approach the Mussels in many respects; they 
are remarkable for the length and silky character of the byssus, 
by which they attach themselves to rocks, and which is col- 
lected in the Mediterranean for the manufacture of gloves and 
other articles, for which it is well adapted by its strength and 
durability. 

Order II. — Mytilaceae. 

815. The order Mytilaceae is well represented by the common 
rmtssel, which has been already described. The various species 

S. r )0. What is peculiar in the other species named ? 
851. Whence arc pearls derived I 



MYTILACEjE THE ANODON DIPSAS. 



471 



of this group are extensively diffused ; and from their abund 
ance in particular localities, and their palatability, they serve 
as important articles of food. Belonging to this order are some 
remarkable boring shells, which have the power of penetrating 
hard rocks, and making deep holes, which are enlarged as they 
advance, in accordance with the growth of the animals, and 
which, therefore, they cannot quit. By what means they ac- 
complish this is unknown. The flattened form of the shell is 
a sufficient proof that it is not by mechanical action, as in some 




Anodon Dipsas. On the right and left of the upper vnlve are seen the mus- 
cular impressions on the interior of the shell. 

of the boring shells of the order Inclusa. The Anodon is a fresh- 
water mussel, closely allied in general conformation to those 
inhabiting the sea, but differing remarkably in the absence of 
teeth in the hinge, whence the name of the genus is derived. 
The Unio is another fresh-water genus, having a more compli- 
cated hinge. It is remarkable for the pearly aspect of the 
lining of the valves and for producing small pearls, sometimes 
in considerable abundance. These are not so pure in their 
colour, however, as those of the Avicula, and are but little es- 
teemed. Some species of Unio are common in the lakes 
and rivers of Britain, but the greater number are peculiar to 
North America ; many of these are remarkable for their size 
and colour. There are some marine Mytilaceae allied to the 
Unios, one of which burrows in coral. 



852. What of this second order ? 

853. What different species are described ? 



472 ZOOLOGY. 



Order III. — Camaceae. 

816. The order Camaceae includes but a comparatively small 
number of species, most of which are peculiar to tropical cli- 
mates. The most remarkable is the tridacne gigas, or giant 
clamp-shell of the Indian Ocean. When young, this animal 
attaches itself to rocks by means of its tendinous foot, which 
serves as a sort of byssus ; but when its shell becomes so mas- 
sive that it is in no danger of injury, it detaches itself, and the 
groove of the shell is filled up. The enormous weight some- 
times attained by this animal has already been mentioned. 
Smaller specimens are often brought to this country ; the 
valves being used to receive water from small fountains, &c, 
and, on the continent, being employed as reservoirs of holy 
water in the churches. The foot has a structure so tough, that, 
to separate the shell attached by it, it is necessary to chop it 
with a hatchet like a cable. The animal being edible, is 
sought by the natives of the islands near which it lives, espe- 
cially the Molluccas. It is usually seen in water a few feet 
deep, with its valves slightly separated ; a pole is pushed down 
between them, which alarms the animal, and causes it to draw 
the valves together. The pole is thus firmly grasped, and by 
this the shell may be lifted from its bed. 

Order IV. — Cardiaceae. 

817. In the animals of the Cardiacese, or Cockle tribe, we 
usually find greater activity than in any others of the class. 
The foot now comes to be a very important organ, possessed 
of great muscular power, and capable of being applied to a 
variety of uses. Many of these animals bury themselves in 
sand or mud ; and it is in these that we find the respiratory 
orifices prolonged into tubes. In the common cockle, however, 
these tubes can scarcely be said to exist, the orifices not being 
prolonged beyond the shell. Its foot is very large, and can be 
bent nearly double in the middle; by doing this, and then 
suddenly straightening it, the animal is enabled to take con- 
siderable leaps. The hinge is very beautifully constructed, 
and the two valves lock closely together. The Trigonia, a very 
interesting genus, abundant in former ages of the globe, but 
now restricted to the shores of New Holland, seems allied to 
the cockle in the structure of its hinge and shell, in the size of 
its foot, and in its general organization, although its mantle is 
divided into two lobes along the whole margin of the valves, 

854. What is the general character of the third order? 
b.").">. Describe the fourth order and their structure. 



ORDER INCLUSA THE RAZOR-SHELLS. 473 

as in the oyster. This is an instance of the impropriety of 
basing our classification on any single characters. There are 
other Cardiaceoe, which obviously conduct towards the next 
order. Such is the telMna, of which the valves, when closed 
together, gape at the posterior extremity; and through this pas- 
sage there pass out two long tubes, which terminate in the 
branchial orifices and funnel. These tubes have an elastic 
structure, and can be entirely drawn within the shell. These 
long tubes are seen also in the venus and its allies, of which 
one species is remarkable for the long spines which guard its 
posterior end ; and also in the mactra, and the animals allied 
to it. In some cases the tubes are united along their whole 
length, and appear to be single, but they are always in reality 
double. All these animals are in the habit of burying them- 
selves in sand, or mud, or in stones ; and the tubes serve to 
introduce fresh water from the entrance of their burrow. 

Order V. — Inclusa. 

818. In the order Inclusa, we usually find the valves, when 
joined together, presenting more or less of a cylindrical form, as 
in the common razor-shell. A hollow is left at each end, and 
from one the foot is projected, through a passage in the mantle, 
whilst the other gives exit to the respiratory tubes, which are 
often prolonged to a great length. The animals live almost uni- 
formly buried in sand or mud, in rocks or wood. The solen, or 
razor-shell, is a very characteristic example of the order, which 
contains, however, some forms that depart very widely from it. 
The foot, which can be projected from the lower end, is firm 
and pointed, and serves as an admirable boring instrument, by 
the use of which the animal can burrow in the sand with great 
rapidity, sinking very deep when alarmed. The mya approaches, 
in the form of its shell, and in its general organization, to the 
previous family ; but some of its species also closely approxi- 
mate to the solens. The pholas is a very interesting genus, the 
animal of which nearly resembles that of the solen, whilst the 
shell is formed of several pieces, and would thence be called a 
multivalve. There are two principal portions, and a variable 
number of accessory pieces. Some species of this genus bore 
in mud, others in rocks, and a few in wood. Their action seems 
purely mechanical. They fix themselves firmly by the power- 
ful foot, and then make the shell revolve ; the sharp edges o** 
this commence the perforation, which is afterwards enlar^ ' 

856. What various species are described ? 

857. How is the fifth order distinguished? 

858. What varieties are named ? 



471 ZOOLOGY. 

by the rasp-like action of the rough exterior ; and though the 
shell must thus be constantly worn down, yet it is replaced by a 
new formation from the animal, so as never to be unfit for its 
purpose. 

819. We now pass on to some very remarkable forms of this 
order, in which the bivalve character of the shell gradually dis- 
appears, being replaced by a new structure, of which no exam- 
ples have been yet seen. The teredo, or wood-worm, as it is 
commonly termed, is an animal of the same general organiza- 
tion as the pholas ; but its valves are smaller in proportion to 
the body, and its tubes still more prolonged, at least when the 
animal may be regarded as full grown. By means of the me- 
chanical action of its valves, it perforates timber, in the same 
manner as the pholas penetrates stone. As it advances, the 
respiratory tubes are prolonged, so that their orifice remains at 
the entrance of the burrow, which is very small in proportion 
to the cavity formed by the animal as it increases in size. This 
orifice is furnished with a pair of valve-like shelly plates, termed 
palmulce, by the action of which a current of water is driven 
towards the body of the animal, in order to serve for its respi- 
ration, and at the same time for the supply of its food. The 
gallery is lined by a calcareous exudation from the surface of 
the tubular prolongation of the mantle, which forms a kind of 
secondary shell. The teredo is an animal extremely destructive 
to timber, especially in warm climates, from which it seems to 
have been originally introduced into the sea-ports of Europe. 

820. In the Gastrochana, this secondary tube is found to line 
not only the part of the passage behind the valves, but also the 
deepest extremity of the burrow, so that it includes the valves, 
which bear but a small proportion to it; the shelly tube is itself 
partly divided, along nearly its whole length, into channels for 
the entrance and exit of water. In Clavagella, one of the valves 
is incorporated with the tube, whilst the other is free, aud seems 
to have a function somewhat similar to that of the palmulae of 
the Teredo. Lastly, in Aspergillum, we find the valves extremely 
small, and completely incorporated with the tube, where, how- 
ever, they may be distinctly traced. The large extremity is not 
completely closed, but is perforated with numerous small holes, 
some of which are prolonged into little tubes. This animal bur- 
rows in sand ; and there is reason to believe that, through these 
orifices, it obtains a supply of water, which it has no special 
means of introducing into the cavity. 

821. Besides the orders now described as composing the 

859. How is the boring performed ? 

860. What varieties are described ? 

861. What other groups a^e named ? 



INCLUSA THE BRACHIOPODA. 



475 



class Conchifera, there is a very curious group which should 
also be included in it, although established as a separate class 
by many naturalists. This is the group of Brachiopoba, con- 
taining only three genera at present known, namely, Tcrebra- 
Hda, Lingula, and Orbicula ; but formerly of much greater com- 
parative importance. These animals have all bivalve shells, 
differing in no essential particular from those of the Conchifera 
in general. The two former genera are attached, however, bv 
a footstalk, proceeding from an opening in one of the valves 
near the hinge, to solid substances ; and in this respect they 
have an affinity with theTunicata. The Orbicula are attached, 
like an oyster, by one of the valves. They bear considerable 
resemblance to the Tunicata also, in the structure of the nu- 
tritive system — the digestive apparatus, heart, gills, &c. But 
in the complexity of the muscular apparatus provided for giving 
motion to the valves, they much surpass the highest of the 
other Conchifera. There are not only several muscles pro- 
vided for the closure of the shell, but another set to open it — 
an organization which no other bivalves possess. The most 
peculiar part of their structure, and that from which they de- 
rive their name, consists in the presence of two very long arms 
or tentacula, between the origin of which the mouth is situated. 
These can be projected to 'a considerable distance from the 
shell, or drawn in and coiled up spirally within it. They do 
not appear, however, to seize upon prey, but rather, by means 
of the cilia with which they are fringed, to create currents 




Terebratula : 
A, valve with the spiral arms ; B, valve with arms removed. 

which may bring food to the mouth. In the Terebratula, these 
arms are affixed at their bases to a very curious framework 
within the shell, the use of which is uncertain; but it is be- 



862. How is this group subdivided ? 

863. What is peculiar in their structure ? 

864. Describe the diagrams. 



476 ZOOLOGY. 

lieved to aid, by its elasticity, in separating the valves from each 
other. This framework is most complex in the species in which 
the arms are shortest. The species of Brachiopoda at present 
known live at great depths in the ocean ; and many of their pe- 
culiarities seem to have reference to that particular condition. 
They are distributed through all latitudes. 



CLASS XVIII.— TUNICATA. 

822. The lowest and simplest of the Molluscous classes is 
that to which the name of Tunicata has been given, in order to 
mark the peculiar structure of the animals composing it, 
They bear a general resemblance to the animals which form 
bivalve shells, but are of inferior organization. They are pe 
culiarly distinguished from them, however, by the entire ab 
sence of any shelly envelope, and by the possession, instead 
of it, of a tunic or external coat, of greater firmness than the 
rest of the structure, which surrounds the whole body and af- 
fords it protection, besides being the medium of its attachment 
to the fixed substances upon which these animals usually rest 
This external tunic is extremely variable in colour, consistence, 
and form. Sometimes it is dark, and of leathery toughness : 
sometimes even cartilaginous ; and in many species it exudes 
a glutinous matter by which particles of sand, gravel, commi- 
nuted shells, &c, are attached together, so as to form an addi- 
tional envelope, which possesses great firmness. Sometimes, 
on the other hand, the whole body is extremely soft and deli- 
cate in its structure, and the tunic is a thin transparent mem- 
brane, the colour of which depends upon the intensity of the 
light transmitted through it. 

823. A vast proportion of the animals of this class are at- 
tached, during the greater part of their existence, either to each 
other or to solid bodies. In a few species, a number of indi- 
viduals are united by a stem, which contains vessels establish- 
ing a connection amongst them all, so that they closely re- 
semble the compound Polypifera. More commonly, however, 
the Tunicata live in societies, each individual being distinct 
from the rest, but a number adhering together to form one mass, 
which is often enclosed in a common envelope. In other in 
stances, each animal is completely separated from the rest 
although a number are found in the same locality. Wherf 
this is the case, the animals are severally fixed to rocks oi 



865. VViiat of the eighteenth class, and their structure ? 

866. What is remarkable in this group ? 



CLASS TUNICATA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 477 

oth^r solid masses, either by the adhesion of the tunic itself, or 
by a sort of footstalk prolonged from it. 

824. The tunic is always provided with two orifices ; these 
are sometimes placed near each other, and are sometimes at 
the opposite extremities of the body; in some species, too, 
they are simple apertures, surrounded by a muscle which can 
open or close them, whilst in others they are situated upon 
tubular prolongations of the general envelope. One of these 
orifices serves for the entrance of water into the cavity of the 
mantle, the other for its exit. The great bulk of the body 
may be considered as a respiratory chamber, that is, a cavity 
lined with a membrane upon which the blood is plentifully 
distributed, in order that it may be exposed to the action of the 
air contained in the water introduced into it. Accordingly, 
a continual current of water is maintained by the action of the 
cilia (minute, constantly-vibrating, hair-like filaments), which 
clothe the lining membrane ; and this current also serves to 
supply food to the inactive creature which produces it. The 
true mouth, or entrance to the canal that leads to the stomach, 
is situated at the bottom of the branchial sac, or respiratory 
chamber ; and part of the water introduced into the latter 
passes into the stomach, and, after traversing the intestinal 
canal, and parting with whatever nutritive materials it con- 

•tained, is ejected from the second orifice of the tunic, with the 
stream that has merely passed over the respiratory membrane. 

825. In these actions nearly the whole life of the Tunicata 
appears to consist. Those which are adherent to rocks have 
no power of changing their place when once attached; and 
those which float in water, either singly or adherent to one 
another, seem to have no means of locomotion, except what 
they derive from the currents just described. The only other 
movement ordinarily noticed, is the contraction of the whole 
sac, which takes place when the animal is irritated in any way, 
the water contained in it being violently ejected. 

826. The figure on the next page will give a general idea of 
the structure of one of these animals. Oh the right hand it is 
seen in its natural condition, with its attached footstalk ; the 
two projections on the right side are short tubes terminating in 
the orifices by which water is introduced and expelled. On the 
left hand is shown the interior of the sac, which has been laid 
open ; it is seen to be nearly empty, the intestinal canal on 
the left side occupying but a small proportion of the cavity ; 
and the membrane lining it is disposed in folds, which are tra- 
versed by blood-vessels, so as to expose the greatest extent of 

£67. How is their respira'ion performed ? 
What oi their hab.u and strtidure I 



478 



ZOOLOGY. 



surface to the action of the water, by the air contained in which 
the vital fluid is purified. The orifice by which the water 
enters this chamber is called the branchial aperture, because 
it is chiefly for the admission of water to the branchiat or gills, 
and that through which it passes out is called the funnel or 
vent. 




Ascidia Australis : A, external aspect; B. internal structure. 

827. The division of this class into orders is most satisfac- 
torily based upon the relative position of these two orifices, 
which will be found to have a close relation with the modes 
of life of two groups of animals respectively. In the Ascidia, 
the two orifices approach one another more or less closely, and 
the body is either immediately fixed to some solid mass, or at- 
tached to it (as in the example just referred to) by a foot- 
stalk. In the Salpje, on the other hand, the two orifices are 
situated at the opposite extremities of the body, which usually 
has an elongated form. They seldom attach themselves to 
fixed objects, but float freely amidst the waters. Without any 
special means of locomotion, they are continually changing 
their place, by means of the currents of water they produce ; 
for the fluid being drawn in at one end, and expelled at the 
other, they advance in the direction to which the branchial 
orifice points. The Salpae are usually of much more delicate 
structure than the Ascidiae. Some of the more interesting spe- 
cies of each group will now be noticed. 

Order I. — Ascidiae. 

828. Althom^h some of the Ascidiae present a nearer approach 
to the animals forming bivalve shells, than do any of the Salpae, 

8o9. What of the diagrams ? 
870. How are liiey divided ? 



CLASS TIMCATA — THE ASCI D LB. 479 

it can scarcely be doublet 1 that the group as a whole is inferior; 
and in it only do we find instances of that connection of several 
individuals by a common stalk, through which blood passes 
from one to the other, which indicates an approach to the 
Polypifera, especially to the order Ascidioida. In these com- 
pound Ascidise a curious phenomenon is witnessed, which 
resembles the movement of fluid that will be described in one 
of the compound Polypes, the Sertularia. The stem which 
supports them contains two large vessels, which send off 
branches into the footstalks that support the several individuals. 
The branch from one trunk goes at once to the heart of each 
ascidia, which is but a simple bag, formed by a dilatation of 
the tube, having muscular walls ; and that from the other is 
connected with the vessels which return from the intestinal 
tube and respiratory membrane, which are supplied with 
branches proceeding from the heart. The blood may be ob- 
served ascending for a time towards the heart through the first 
of these trunks, passing thence to the general strucr-.e, and 
returning through the footstalk by the second. But, after a 
short time, the current is reversed, and the blood ascends through 
what .was before the returning trunk, and descends through the 
heart. In a short time the flow is again reversed; and this 
change is repeated with great regularity, just as in the Sertula- 
ria. Although this alternation may be best observed in these 
compound Ascidise., in which the direction of the flow through 
the stem and branches may be clearly traced, there is reason to 
believe that it is common to the whole group of these curious 
animals. 

829. In other members of this order, there is no connection 
between the internal structure of the different individuals, but 
several are associated together under one common envelope, 
encrusting stones or other solid bodies, and even attaching 
themselves to larger species of isolated Ascidiae. Such are the 
animals of the genus Poly di num. On the other hand, the 
Botrylli attach themselves in preference to floating bodies, and 
arrange themselves in the form of stars, the funnels of all being 
directed towards a central space, and the branchial orifices, 
which are nearly at the opposite extremity of the body, being 
turned outwards. Both in their structure and habits, there- 
fore, these Botrylli seem intermediate between the entirely 
fixed Ascidiae and the Salpos which move freely in numbers 
attached to each other without any extraneous support. The 
most highly organized Ascidiae live quite separately, though a 
number often affix themselves to rocks side by side, so closely 

871. What is peculiar in their circulation ? 

872. What varieties ar* described ? 






489 ZOOLOGY. 

that, if one contract on being touched, it will jostle its neigh- 
bour, which will contract in its turn, and this will cause the 
contraction of the rest, and so on through a whole row. The 
Ascidiae are diffused through all latitudes ; and many species 
exist on the shores of Britain, belonging to the different groups 
which have been mentioned. In their young state they enjoy 
considerable locomotive powers, by the vibration of a sort of 
tail (like that of a tadpole) with which they are furnished ; but 
when once fixed, this disappears. 

Order II. — Salpae. 

830. The Salpae are most abundant in tropical climates, and 
possess a greater delicacy of organization than the Ascidiae, 
being generally almost or completely transparent. Most of the 
species belonging to this group are also remarkable for their 
luminous properties. In no species does there appear to exist 
such an internal connection as has been described in the lowest 
Ascidiae; but scarcely any of them are entirely solitary. They 
generally associate together in masses of considerable extent, 
adhering either by their whole external surfaces, or by little 
projections from it, which seem formed for the purpose of at- 
taching them to each other. Sometimes these masses assume 
the form of long bands, composed of Salpae adhering together 
side by side, ail lying in the same direction. In others, again, 
the form of a star is presented, by an arrangement similar to 
that of the Botryllus. One of the most interesting of all, how- 
ever, is the Pyrosoma, in which a number of these stars are 
piled, as it were, on one another, so as to form a cylindrical 
tube, which is closed at one end. The orifices of all the ani- 
mals composing it are disposed in the same direction, so that 
water is constantly being drawn in on the exterior, and ex- 
pelled from the interior of the tube ; as it can only pass out at 
one extremity, a current of sufficient force is produced to oc- 
casion the steady movement of the aggregate mass in the con- 
trary direction. The luminosity of the Pyrosoma, the length 
of which varies from five to fourteen inches, is extremely 
vivid. 

873. What is remarkable in the second order ? 

874. Describe their peculiarities. 



SUB-KINGDOM RAD1ATA CLASSIFICATION. 581 



S UB-K1NGD OM—RAD I A TA. 

831. The general fact formerly stated, that in every com- 
plete natural group there are some members which exhibit 
most plainly its characteristic peculiarities, whilst there are 
others in which they cannot be distinctly traced, or are alto- 
gether obscured, is nowhere more evident than when we com- 
pare together the different classes which are associated into 
this sub-kingdom. For whilst in some we find the radiated 
arrangement of parts almost invariably preserved, and, if left 
at all, only slightly departed from, we can only trace it indis- 
tinctly in others ; and in others, again, it cannot be at all per- 
ceived. Thus, when we examine a star-fish, a medusa, or a 
sea-anemone, we observe that they all have a circular form ; 
that the mouth is in the centre of one of the surfaces, and that 
the several parts arranged round these are but repetitions of 
one another; and an internal examination would show the 
contained organs to have the same character. If from these 
we pass to certain other species of the same groups, we should 
find -the external form slightly modified, being prolonged or 
shortened in one particular direction, and the disposition of the 
interior organs no longer radiated. Again, in the Sponges, all 
trace of a circular arrangement of parts disappears. Yet these, 
and other groups in which the radiated type is equally absent, 
must be associated with the classes more characteristic of them, 
on account of their general conformity of structure, and in 
some instances their very close alliance with them. 

832. Moreover, in comparing the different forms of this group, 
we see exemplified another general principle, namely, that the 
aberrant members of it, those which depart most widely from 
its regular type, connect it with other groups. For among the 
species in which the radiated arrangement is obscure, we find 
some that conduct us toward the Mollusca, and others that 
lead us to the Articulata; whilst in the Sponges and Coral- 
lines we have an evident approximation to the vegetable king- 
dom. So close, indeed, is this approximation, that there are 
many beings of which the true character is yet in doubt: they 
live and grow, and multiply very much in the manner of plants ; 
and it cannot be ascertained with certainty whether the feeble 
motions they exhibit are to be regarded as spontaneous or 
not. 

875. Describe the characteristics of this sub-kingdom. 

876. What different species are named ? 

877. What is said of the Sponges and Corallines? 

878. What variety of structure is iound ? 



482 ZOOLOGY. 

833. The great diversity, not only in form, but also in de- 
gree of organization, that exists amongst the radiated classes, 
prevents much being stated of their general characters that 
shall be applicable to all of them. Thus, although the skele- 
ton is external in some species, as the sea-urchin and star-fish, 
it is internal in others, as the Corals and some of the jelly- 
fish. Although most of them have a distinct mouth and 
stomach for the reception of aliment, others imbibe it, like 
plants, only by absorption through their exterior. Although 
some exhibit a high degree of sensibility, others are so apa- 
thetic as scarcely to manifest any feeling of injury when se- 
verely wounded. 

834. The class Polypifera, containing the coral-forming 
animals, may perhaps be regarded as the most characteristic 
of the group. These animals usually associate themselves to- 
gether into compound masses, of which every part is capable 
of existing independently of the rest, and each polype exhibits 
in itself the radiated structure, which cannot be detected in the 
entire mass ; but all have a certain degree of connection with 
each other, which may be compared to that existing among the 
different buds of a tree. Even the species which do not form 
solid structures, such as the sea-anemone, remain almost con- 
stantly attached to the same spot. 

835. The Acaleph^:, commonly termed Sea-Nettles, or Jelly- 
Fish, have no such tendency to aggregation ; and they never 
attach themselves to solid bodies, but wander at large through 
the ocean. By these characters, and by their extreme softness, 
these animals are readily distinguished. 

836. The Echinodermata also live solitarily, and have the 
power of free movement, except in a few species which 
approach the Polypifera; but they are readily distinguished 
from the Acalephae by the density of their texture, and espe- 
cially by the roughness of the integument, which is usually 
beset with prickles or spines, as in the star-fish and sea- 
urchin. 

In the two following classes, no distinctly radiated structure 
can be seen : — 

837. The Poltgastrica, which are ordinarily known as 
Animalcules, are beings of extreme minuteness, and general 
simplicity of structure. In the absence of distinct organs for 
the various purposes of the economy, they correspond with the 
lower Radiata ; but they differ in the extreme activity of their 
movements. A separate division of the animal kingdom might 
almost be formed for them alone, so difficult is it to assign 

879. Describe each of the radiated classes. 

880. Whai ui" the Animalcular variety ? 



CLASS POLYGASTRICA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 483 

them any place in the ordinary scale. Some of them exhibit 
a tendency to associate into compound structures like the Poly- 
pi fera. 

838. The Porifera, or Sponge tribe, are, of all animals, 
those which approach nearest to plants in the absence of the 
characters peculiar to the kingdom in which they are placed, 
and in the want of definiteness of form. Certain movements 
exhibited by them, however, and their close affinity with some 
of the Polypifera, render it proper that they should be classed 
among animals. 



CLASS XIX— POLYGASTRICA. 

839. This class includes the greater part of those minute 
beings termed Animalcules, which have been, from the time of 
the discovery of the microscope, such fertile sources of wonder 
and delight, both to those who have themselves observed them 
and to those who have heard from others of their marvels. 
Previously to that epoch, it was not suspected that beings ex- 
isted of such minuteness as to be invisible to the eye, much less 
was any idea entertained of the extreme smallness of many spe- 
cies ; and still more improbable and absurd would the statement 
have been deemed, that such beings are not of rare occurrence, 
but abound in every drop of stagnant water, and even exist in 
the whole mass of the ocean. Yet such has been shown to be 
the fact; and every improvement in the powers of the micro- 
scope has enlarged our ideas of the extent of animal life in the 
fluids of the globe. So that the philosopher is now ready to ad- 
mit no limit to the possible minuteness of living beings, but 
looks to still further improvements in the microscope as a means 
of extending his acquaintance with them, and not as likely to set 
any bound to his inquiries. 

840. In the general term Animalcules have been included a 
large number of beings which have no claim to a place in this 
class; all the minute forms of animal existence, in fact, were 
so denominated, whether they were beings perfect in themselves 
or only the embryos of higher forms into which they would sub- 
sequently be developed. And, thus, the gemmules of Polypus, 
and the larvae of Insects, have been confounded with the true 
Animalcules. The term Infusoria has also been applied to them, 



881. What is said ot the Sponge tribe ? 

B82. By what mean9 was this class discovered? 

663. What wonders are thus disclosed ? 



484 ZOOLOGY. 

from the circumstance of their abounding in infusions of decom- 
posing animal or vegetable matter. It is, in fact, from contain- 
ing a large quantity of such matter, that the waters of ponds 
and ditches are an especial resort of animalcules ; and it may- 
be doubted whether they can exist in water which is perfectly 
pure. But under the general term of Infusoria has been inclu- 
ded a tribe until recently confounded with these other and pro- 
bably simpler beings ; this tribe, consisting of the Wheel-Ani- 
malcules and their allies, will be hereafter described as a separate 
class, under the name of Rotifera. 

841. Animalcules may be obtained without difficulty for mi- 
croscopic examination, during the warmer part of the year, by 
skimming the surface of ponds, especially those in which the 
water exhibits a red or green tinge, or in which it is covered 
with duckweed, or with the slimy film which may often be noticed. 
Many curious species frequent these situations ; but the com- 
moner ones may be obtained with even less difficulty, by placing 
soft vegetable matter, of almost any description, in vessels with 
water, and exposing the mixture to the sun and air for a few 
days. As soon as decomposition begins actively to take place, 
animalcules may be detected in the fluid, and in a short time 
they often crowd it most densely. These are generally at first 
of a simpler kind, but new species soon prevail, and those first 
seen disappear. Different kinds of vegetable matter seem to 
favour the development of the different species ; and there are 
some animalcules that can be produced in no other way than 
from an infusion of some particular substance. Asparagus 
stems that have been boiled, will favour the production of ani- 
malcules, with perhaps as much readiness as any vegetable mat- 
ter ; hay, chopped straw, the leaves of plants, and other common 
ingredients, may also be advantageously employed. 

842. When such facts are stated, the question naturally arises, 
from what source are these animalcules developed ! Are they 
actually produced by the dead and decaying matter in the midst 
of which they are found, in the same manner as maggots are 
popularly supposed to be bred in putrid meat ] or, are their germs 
constantly floating about in the air, ready to spring into active 
life wherever they find a fluid adapted to afford them materials 
for their development, as some seeds are wafted from place to 
place, until they find a fitting soil in which they may take root] 
The latter of these suppositions, improbable as it may appear 
(especially when we consider that there are many hundred dif- 
ferent kinds of animalcules, and that we must suppose that the 

884. What varieties are mentioned ? 

^7). Whenee may they be obtained? 

886. What other methods ot obtaining them ? 



CLASS POLYGASTRICA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 4S5 

germs of all these are diffused through the atmosphere in order 
to account for their appearance in the several situations they 
frequent), must be regarded as nearest to the truth. It is quite 
certain that no fluid, the communication of which with the ex- 
ternal air is prevented, will produce animalcules : and thus it 
would appear that the invisible germs are sown, as it were, like 
seeds, in the solution, and are called from their previously tor- 
pid state into active life, by the nutriment they find there, differ- 
ent kinds of which are adapted to different species of animal- 
cules. 

843. In the class Polygastrica are included all the most minute 
species of true Animalcules, and some among the larger ones ; 
but as a whole, the beings composing it are smaller than the 
Rotifera, and far smaller than those of any other class. The 
largest among them are but with difficulty seen by the naked 
eye, and of the dimensions of the smallest the mind can scarcely 
form an adequate conception, although they may be numerically 
stated. The class takes its name from the belief entertained by 
the celebrated Prussian naturalist, Ehrenburg (who has devoted 
almost his whole life to the study of the microscopic forms of 
existence), that the animals composing it may be characterized 
by the possession of many distinct stomachs or digestive sacs. 
There is some doubt upon this question, however; that which 
can actually be seen will be presently stated, and it will be pre- 
ferable to enter no further into the question in this place. 

844. The bodies of these Animalcules are of very soft con- 




Various forms of Animalcules. 



>. 



sistence, and very transparent, so that they resemble flakes of 
very thin jelly. Their forms are extremely variable ; and, in 
some species, the same individual at different times alters its 



887. How is their generation accounted for? 

888. To what class d > thesmalUst belong? 



486 ZOOLOGY. 

shape so completely that it could scarcely be recognised. In- 
deed, many mistakes have occurred from this cause. The 
softness of the tissues of the Polygastrica is also seen when, in 
swimming, they encounter an obstacle; there seems scarcely 
any limit to the change of form to which many will submit, 
in order to pass the obstruction. They are not all so flexible, 
however, for in some species the body is enclosed in a silicious 
sheath of very great delicacy, which gives support and protec- 
tion to the still more delicate structures it contains. It is the 
accumulation of such sheaths that has given rise to the collec- 
tions of Fossil Infusoria (as they have been termed), which will 
be hereafter noticed. Sometimes the whole body is contained 
within the sheath, whilst in other instances a sort of trunk or 
foot may be projected from its opening. 

845. The bodies of the Polygastrica are usually fringed with 
cilia, by the vibrations of which they are assisted in their own 
movements, and also in the acquirement of their food. Some- 
times these cilia are disposed along the whole extent of the edges 
of the body; in other instances they surround the mouth only, 
and from that part they are seldom absent. In the vorticclla, an 
animalcule which is very commonly found clustering round the 
stems of duckweed, a complete circle of cilia may be observed, 
at the top of the funnel-shaped body, the lower end of which is 
prolonged into a stalk that serves for its attachment. This last 
peculiarity is by no means confined to it, however ; for although 
the greater part of the Polygastrica are endowed with the power 
of active movement, some remain attached, like Polypes, 
during a great part of their lives, and others fix themselves oc- 
casionally. In some instances, too, we find a number asso- 
ciated into one compound plant-like structure, exhibiting the 
habit of the Polypifera, although the several parts are analo- 
gous to other Polygastric Animalcules. 

846. For some time after the discovery of the Infusoria, it 
was supposed that they must obtain their nutriment by absorp- 
tion through the substance of their bodies, for no mouth, sto- 
mach, or alimentary tube, could then be discerned. But, by 
placing them in water through which very small particles of 
colouring matter (such as indigo or carmine) were diffused, 
it was perceived that these particles are introduced into the in- 
terior of the body, and are collected in cavities hollowed from 
the general mass. And, subsequently, the improved powers 
of the microscope have enabled an entrance to the interior of 
the body, or mouth, to be discovered in almost every instance, 
and a second orifice in a considerable number of species. The 

889. What of the variety of form and structure? 

890. What of their locomoiive powers? 



CLASS POLYGASTRICA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 487 

mouth is commonly furnished with a border of cilia, and some- 
times with a set of projecting, bristle-like teeth, which are used 
in laying hold of smaller animalcules, on which the possessor 
of this apparatus feeds. The introduction of food into the 
cavity of the body, in those species which are destitute of this 
appendage, may be best watched by diffusing colouring par- 
ticles through the water in which the animalcules are swim- 
ming. They are seen to be drawn into the mouth by the vortex 
or whirlpool occasioned by the action of the cilia ; and soon after 
entering it, they are observed to be united together into little 
round balls, as if they had been compressed in a small spherical 
cavity. These balls are sent, one after the other, into the ge- 
neral cavity of the body, where they seem to lie in the midst of 
a soft gelatinous pulp, and in which they perform a slow revo- 
lution — the foremost ones escaping at intervals from the second 
orifice, whilst new ones are being pushed in from the mouth 
behind. 

847. This is all that can as yet be certainly stated in regard 
to the digestive apparatus of the Polygastrica ; since the 
opinion of Ehrenberg, that the whole body is occupied by a 
series of small distinct globular cavities or stomachs, connected 
by an intestinal tube, is not adopted by other naturalists. No- 
thing will therefore be said of his classification of these Animal- 
cules, which is principally based upon characters furnished 
(according to his idea) by the arrangement of the stomachs. 
Some further details of the physiology of this interesting class 
will be more profitable to the reader. 

848. The largest species of the Polygastrica probably never 
exceed l-20th of an inch in length; the smallest at present 
known are about l-200th of a line in diameter; but there is no 
reason to suppose that this is by any means the limit of mi- 
nuteness. They usually multiply by spontaneous division, the 
body of the parent splitting into two or more parts, each of 
which soon becomes a perfect being, capable of going through 
the same process. From observations which have been made 
upon the species in which these changes are most rapidly ef- 
fected, it has been calculated that, under the most favourable 
circumstances as to food, temperature, &c, a hundred and forty 
million millions may be produced in four days — a degree of 
fertility which assists in explaining the almost universal dif- 
fusion of these animalcules, and their sudden appearance in 
countless swarms. 

849. A peculiar mode of reproduction exists in one very curi- 
ous compound animalcule, the volvox globator, or globe animal- 

891. How is their internal structure made visible? 

892. What is said of their minuteness ? 



488 



ZOOLOGY. 



cule, which is one of the most beautiful and interesting of all 
the species with which the microscope has made the observer 
familiar. Each globe was formerly regarded as a single ani- 
malcule, moving through the water by its own will ; it was 
seen to contain smaller globes, which gradually increased, and 
at last gained exit by the rupture of the parent sphere, these 
second globes often being seen to contain within themselves r 
third generation before they escape from the first. It is no\i 
known, however, that each sphere is a collection of animal- 
cules ; the little projections upon its surface being distinct in- 
dividuals, each having its own cilia, by the simultaneous action 
of which the globe is caused to roll through the water. They 
are all connected by a delicate transparent membrane, which 
forms the wall of the hollow sphere, and which is to the indi- 
viduals something like what the polype-structure is to its com- 
ponent polypes ; these walls are traversed by vessels, which 
establish a certain degree of connection between the several 
beings. The interior globes consist of newly-formed associa- 
tions of a similar description ; they are of darker colour than 
that which contains them, because the animalcules of which 
they are composed are packed more closely together, the inter- 
vening walls not being yet developed. Many other such com- 
pound structures exist in various forms ; some of the most 
common being flattened shields, each of which separates into 
four divisions, every such part containing a certain number of 
individuals, and gradually assuming the form and size of its 
parent. 

850. Our ideas of the great 
amount of animal life existing 
in this class have lately re- 
ceived a vast extension by the 
discovery that their remains, 
minute as they are, not un- 
frequently accumulate into 
masses of great extent. It is 
only of those species in which 
the bodies are covered with 
an envelope containing earthy 
matter, that the remains can be 
thus preserved ; and the substance formed by their aggregation 
seems to be an impalpable powder, such is the minuteness of 
each particle. Such substances have long been known under 
various names. One is the Tripoli, or Rotten-stone, used in 
the arts for polishing metals. Another is the silicious meal 




Fossil remains of Animalcules form- 
ing Tripoli. 



893. What wonderful instance is described? 

894. Wlini instances m fossil remains are rited ? 



CLASS ECHINODERMATA THE STAR-FISH. 489 

which has heen used in Sweden, on account of its supposed 
nutritious qualities, mixed in bread with flour and the inner 
bark of trees, in times of scarcity. Both these, as well as many- 
other substances, consist entirely of the silicious shields or en- 
velopes of Animalcules, closely allied to, if not identical with, 
species at present existing; and the quantity of animal matter 
which is dried up in the latter, and which may be determined 
by the effect of heat, (this dissipating the animal portion, and 
leaving the silicious particles unchanged,) is sufficient to ac- 
count for its nutritious properties. 

851. The mode in which such deposits were formed is readily 
understood from an examination of the bottom of the waters in 
which the existing species abound. Here a kind of whitish 
mud is seen to be slowly deposited; and this, when highly 
magnified, is seen to consist entirely of the remains of past 
generations of the Animalcules, to which constant additions are 
being made. Of the countless multitudes that must thus accu- 
mulate in order to constitute an appreciable quantity, some idea 
may be formed from the fact that, of the larger species, 187 
millions are estimated to go to a grain ; and that of the small- 
est, a cubic line is reckoned to contain 1000 millions. It is 
probably not only in the formations in which they can be dis- 
tinctly seen, that these extraordinary beings have had a share, 
for in many others some remains of them can be traced, which 
have the appearance of having been partially dissolved by the 
action of water, which, by afterwards depositing the silex, has 
again consolidated them. This is the case in agates, opals, and 
many flints. 



CLASS XX.— ECHINODERMATA. 

852. The class of Echinodermata, comprehending those well- 
known animals, the Asterias (star-fish) and Echinus (sea-urchin), 
takes its name from the prickly skin with which most of the 
tribe it includes are provided. But this is not a universal 
character; for some of the species, which border upon other 
groups, have a skin destitute of any appearance of spines. 
There is little difficulty, however, in distinguishing the animals 
of this class from all others; for in nearly the whole of them the 
radiated structure, or the arrangement of parts in a circular 
form, is very evident; and they are the only animals among 

895. How are they shown to be innumerable ? 

896. What species are comprised in the twentie'h class? 



490 



ZOOLOGY. 






the Radiata which have the power of moving from place to place, 
and have at the same time an integument firm enough to resist 
pressure. 

853. Although the character and degree of organization in 
the different subdivisions of this class may be regarded as about 
the same, the form of the organs, and the mode in which they 
are arranged, are very different ; so that it will be better to de- 
scribe each group separately. The class may be distributed 
into three orders — the Stellerida, including the star-fishes 
and their allies; the Echinus, including the echinus and its 
allies; and the Holothurid.e, a group less commonly known, 
and differing much from others. 

Order I. — Stellerida. 

854. The common asterias, or star-fish, which may be taken 
as a type of the order Stellerida, is covered with a tough 
leathery skin, beset with prickles. The ani- 
mal has the form of a star, with five or more 
rays springing from a central disk. In the 
middle of one side of the disk is situated the 
mouth ; and this side, according to the usual 
habits of the animal, must be considered the 
lower one. In this respect, the position of 
the mouth corresponds to that of the medusa. 
The mouth opens into a globular stomach, 
which sends out prolongations into the se- 
veral rays ; but there is no intestine in this animal, nor any 
second orifice to the digestive cavity ; so that the indigestible 
parts are rejected by the mouth, as in the sea-anemone. The rays 
also contain the ovaria, in which the ova or eggs are produced ; 
and these are liberated through openings surrounding the 
mouth. A system of vessels for the absorption of aliment from 
the stomach, and for the transmission of the nutritive fluid from 
one part of the body to another, and also a set of nervous fibres 
forming a ring around the mouth, may be observed in this ani- 
mal, and show the complexity of its structure to be greater than 
what has been displayed in the lower classes. 

855. But it is in the skeleton, and in the organs of motion, 
of the star-fish, that the most remarkable complexity is dis- 
played. If the tough prickly skin be removed, it is seen that 
it is supported by a series of bony plates, beautifully jointed 
together. Along the under side of each ray, the plates exhibit 
a series of perforations, through which there issue, in the living 
state, a large number of minute tubes, which may be occa- 

897. Into how many orders are they divided ? 

898. Describe the first order 




: upper sur- 
face. 



STELLERIDA THE STAR- FISH. 491 

sionally seen projecting on the outside. These tubes are 
termed the feet, on account of the use to which they are sub- 
servient. Every one of them is connected, on the interior of 
the shell, with a small vesicle or bag, which is capable of being 
distended with water by a system of vessels adapted to the 
purpose, and of contracting so as to force its contents into the 
tube. The tube consists of a delicate elastic membrane, covered 
with two layers of muscular fibres, the one circular, the other 
longitudinal, and furnished with a sucker at its extremity. 
When distended with water, the tube projects from the body ; 
and if the sucker be then applied to any movable substance, 
it will be drawn towards the body by the elasticity of the mem- 
brane, when the distending force is relaxed. Although each 
sucker is small and weak, the combined efforts of many give 
the animal considerable power not only of drawing prey to- 
wards the mouth, but of moving its own body from place to 
place. 

856. The rays or arms of the star-fish are in some degree 
movable, both from side to side, and towards or away from 
the mouth. These animals feed upon almost any organized 
substance, living or dead, that falls in their way; and, by 
means of the suckers on the rays, and the motion of the rays 
themselves, they can convey to the stomach various living 
animals that have come within their reach. In some of the 
species there is reason to believe that eyes exist at the extre- 
mity of the rays, little red spots being seen there, like the eyes 
of others among the inferior classes, and the motions of the 
animals, in their change of place, and in their search for food, 
appearing to be directed by some visual sense. 

857. The order Stellerida includes a large number of forms, 
having a general resemblance to the star-fish, but differing 
much in the relative proportion of the body and rays. Thus, 
in some species, the arms seem to make up the entire animal, 
no central disk being present, save that formed by their 
union. In others, the arms appear simply appendages to the 
central disk, to which the stomach and other important organs 
are confined ; one of these is called Ophiura, from the resem- 
blance of the arms to serpents' tails. In some instances, the 
arms send off lateral appendages, and these occasionally again 
subdivide, so that a branch-like structure is produced, such as 
we find in the Comutula. 

858. A very remarkable tribe, included among the Stelle- 
rida — once a group very important in its numbers, and in the 

899. What is remarkable in its structure ? 

900. Describe its complex skeleton. 

901. What variety is described ? 



492 ZOOLOGY. 

extent of its diffusion through the sea, but now presenting only 
two or three comparatively small species — is that known under 
the name of Crinoidea, or lily-like animals. These are formed 
much upon the plan of the Comatula, but they are attached 
by a jointed stalk to solid substances, usually to the bottom of 
the sea. They thus remind us of the Polypifera, which they 
seem to connect with the Echinodermata. This group contains 
two principal subdivisions — the Encrinites and the Pentacrinites* 
The former are distinguished by the roundness of their stems, 
the joints of which, being flat and perforated in the centre, are 
known under the name of wheel-stones, or St. Cuthbert's beads. 
, The latter have pentagonal stems. The former seem to have 

been the most ancient. Their remains abound in the transi- 
tion limestone of Dudley, and other strata of that period ; but 
the tribe has now entirely disappeared from the surface of the 
globe. 

859. The Pentacrinites are found in more recent strata ; and 
two species of the tribe, one a very small one, found in the 
Bay of Cork, and a larger one in the West Indian seas, still 
now remain to us. They are extremely beautiful structures, 
and the number of distinct parts they contain is often enor- 
mous. It has been reckoned that in the P. briareus, the total 
number of the pieces of the skeleton is certainly not less than 
150,000. And, as each piece was furnished with at least two 
sets of muscular fibres, the skeleton must have been put in 
motion by 300,000 such muscles. The Encri7iites seem to have 
been attached by spreading roots, which prevented them from 
moving when once affixed. The pent acrinus y on the other hand, 
seems to attach itself by a kind of sucker at the bottom of the 
stem, so that it can quit its support at pleasure, and go in search 
of a new one. 

Order II. — Echinida. 

860. In the Echinida we find the body usuaHy of a some- 
what globular shape, and enveloped in a firm shell, composed 
of a very regular series of plates jointed together. In the 
echinus, the shell of which is commonly known as the sea-egg, 
we observe two orifices situated at the poles, as it were, of the 
globe. The larger of these orifices is the mouth; at the 
smaller one the intestinal tube terminates. The mouth, as in 
the star-fish, is generally directed downwards. It is furnished 
with a very curious apparatus of teeth, which are worked by 
powerful muscles attached to projections of the shell, that may 

902. Name the next tribe and its divisions ? 

903. What is wonderful in the last mentioned ? 

904. Describe the peculiarities of this order. 






order echinida — the echinus. 



493 



he seen on the inner margin of the month; and their points 
can even be protruded beyond the mouth, so as to lay hold of 
prey brought to them by the long tubular feet. By the action 
of the teeth, the food is ground down before it passes into the 
intestinal tube, which is here of considerable length, and takes 
a couple of turns round the shell before its termination. Round 
the second orifice of the shell are disposed the ovaria, which 
are very largely distended with eggs at some seasons, and are 
eaten under the name of the roe of the sea-egg. 

861. It is the exterior organization of these animals, how- 
ever, that presents us with the greatest sources of interest. On 
looking at the Echinida in their living state, we see that most 
of them are covered with spines of considerable size, instead of 
with such small prickles as the Asterias bears. Moreover, 
these spines are seen to be movable at their bases, and this 
power of motion is due to their peculiar connection with the 
shell. Each spine is spread, at its root, into a cup-like form, 
and the hollow of this cup fits upon a little knob or tubercle 
projecting from the surface of the shell, so that a complete ball- 
and-socket joint is formed. The spines are connected to each 
other, and held on the shell, by the skin which covers the latter, 
and which is attached around their roots ; and it is by the con- 
tractions of this skin that they are moved. In the Cidaris, which 
may perhaps be regarded as the highest form of the Echinida, 
the spines are generally few in number, but of large size ; their 
tubercles are very prominent ; and they are united by an elastic 
ligament which is imbedded in the top of each knob, and the 
hollow of each cup, like the round liga- 
ment of the hip-joint in man. Thus, they 
are firmly held together, and great freedom 
of motion is allowed. 

862. On looking at the exterior of the 
shell of an echinus, it is seen that the tuber- 
cles are arranged with great regularity, 
and that the larger ones are confined to 
particular rows of plates, which are hence 
called tubercular plates. Between these 
are smaller plates, commonly bearing 
smaller tubercles, and perforated with a 
number of minute holes for the passage 
of the tubular feet ; these are called ambula- 
cral plates. The tubular feet, like the spines, 
are much longer than in the star-fish. 
They are always capable of being projected 




Shell of Echinus : < 
tubercular plates ; 
ambulacral plates. 



905. What of their external structure? 
90f>. How is this described ? 



494 ZOOLOGY. 

beyond the spines; and, taking an attachment by the suckers 
at their extremities, they can cause the shell to roll, as it were, 
upon the points of these. In some species, the spines are five 
or six inches long, whilst the diameter of the body is much less. 
The tubular feet often escape notice on account of their trans- 
parency; and the animal appears to be walking upon its spines, 
when it is merely resting upon them as fulcra, and drawing 
itself forwards by these curious organs. It is to be remembered 
that the body will weigh much less in water than in air, and 
thus may be supported upon spines of great delicacy. 

863. The structure of the shell itself, and the mode of its 
increase, are not among the least interesting parts of the history 
of this animal. The shell is composed, as already stated, of a 
large number of plates disposed with great regularity, and 
accurately fitted together. These plates are usually of an 
hexagonal shape, but, where small and large ones join, there 
is of course some modification. Now, it is obvious that a shell 
of globular form can only be regularly increased in all its di- 
mensions by the equal growth of every part of it. But the 
hard structures themselves, in beings of this low grade of or- 
ganization, are not traversed by vessels which shall cause any 
growth of their substance ; and, as in the skeletons of the Poly- 
pifera, the parts once deposited undergo little or no subsequent 
change. All the growth takes place at their edges, and by the pe- 
culiar division of the shell of the Echinida, a corresponding ad- 
dition to every plate will preserve the form of the whole. This 
addition is provided for by the interposition of a thin layer of 
membrane, from which the shelly substance may be deposited 
between the edges of all the plates ; and this membrane also 
answers the purpose of forming a connection between the skin 
covering the shell and the organs of nutrition within. 

864. These animals are generally found on sandy shores, and 
especially in little nooks secluded from the direct influence of 
the waves. Some of them excavate hollows in the sand by 
means of their spines, and one species even works its way into 
solid rock. Their food is of a mixed quality. Fragments of 
shells, Crustacea, and other marine animal products, are found 
in their stomachs, as well as portions of sea-weed. They obtain 
their prey whilst lurking in their hollows, by allowing their 
tubular feet to play loosely in the water around; and when any 
small animal touches the sucker at the end of one of them, it is 
soon secured by the assistance of others, and drawn within the 
range of the powerful teeth. 

865. It is not in every species of Echinida that the globular 



907. What is said of the growth of the shell ? 

908. What is said of their habits i 



ECHINIDA THE CLYPEASTER. 495 

form is so well marked as in the sea-egg. There are many in 
which the shell is more or less flattened, and in which one or 
both of the apertures of the alimentary canal are out of the 
centre. In these the dental apparatus is either absent or com- 
paratively feeble. Among these we may notice the spatangus, 
in the various species of which we may observe a gradation 
from the globular form of the echinus to a very much flattened 
one, with the second orifice placed rather at the side, or even on 
the under surface, than at the upper pole. The mouth, too, 
leaves the centre, and is usually situated at the part of the under 
surface opposite to the vent. The whole body is prolonged in 
the direction of the line joining the two orifices, so that the 
radiated type is here considerably departed from. The spatangus 
feeds upon the animalcules and decaying organic matter mixed 
up with the sand in which it burrows; and to obtain this, it 
takes a large quantity of sand into its stomach, which is always 
found full of it. 

866. The clypeaster is another of the Echinida in which the 
characteristic form is in some degree departed from. Here, 
too, the shell is flattened, and the second orifice, or vent, leaves 
its summit, but the mouth retains its central position on the 
lower side ; and thus as the vent, in the different species, be- 
comes more and more removed from its original position, it 
approximates the mouth. In the same proportion, usually, 
the shell is flattened, so that, in these two characters, an 
approach to the structure of the star-fish is indicated. This is 
very remarkable in some species of Scutella, in which the shell 
is not only extremely flattened, but even divided in some 
degree at its edges, or by partitions within ; and the two 
orifices are so near each other as almost to unite, and thus 
resemble the single orifice of the asterias. There are, however, 
other characters by which their true place in the scale is made 
clear. 

867. It is remarkable that, judging from the order of their 
fossil remains, the Crinoidea should have abounded in the ocean 
long before the Echinida existed in any large numbers. The 
mountain limestone, in which whole beds are sometimes made 
up of Encrinites, contains very few Echini. The number of 
these last increased, however, as the others diminished, and in 
later strata, such as the chalk, they are very abundant. Hence, 
we derive an inference in regard to the former temperature of 
the globe similar to that which the consideration of the fossil 
Polypifera afforded; for whilst the only large species of Penta- 
crim/.s at present existing is confined to tropical seas, the Echi- 

909. What different species are described? 

910. What geological inference is derived here ? 




496 ZOOLOGY. 

nida range over almost the whole globe ; and thus we may con- 
clude that the temperature of the parts at a distance from the 
equator was formerly higher than at present, and that it has 
gradually cooled down. 

Order III. — Holothurida. 

868. In the last order of Echinodermata, the Holothurida. we 
find the characters of the class remarkably blended with those 
of Articulated animals. The body is not enveloped in a hard 
shell, but in an elastic skin, destitute of spines or prickles. It 
retains, in some species, the globular form, but in many it is 
very much prolonged, so as to be almost cylindrical, and thus 
to resemble that of the Worm tribes ; and it is occasionally 
even marked by transverse bands, indicating a division into 
segments. Still, however, a distinctly radiated conformation 
may be seen around the mouth, and some of these animals look 
as if a star-fish were set as a head on the body of a large worm. 
In the general conformation of the internal organs they corre- 
spond with the Echinida, but they are in some respects more 
complex, and the respiratory organs are constructed upon the 
plan of those of the Articulata. They thus form a very inte- 
resting link of connection between the Radiated and Articulated 
sub-kingdoms. 

869. The skin of most of the Holothurida is so very elastic, 
that they can change their size and form in a remarkable de- 
gree. They are capable, too, of swimming with considerable 
rapidity, and some of them crawl like slugs upon solid surfaces. 
Small species are occasionally found in British seas ; but in 
some tropical shores they are very abundant, and grow to the 
length of eighteen or twenty inches. They are sometimes 
eaten by the poor on the Neapolitan coast; but in the Malay 
archipelago they are regularly sought and conveyed to the 
Chinese market, where, under the name of trepang, they fetch a 
high price. 



911. Describe this third order. 



CLASS ACALEPH^E. 497 



CLASS XXI.— ACALEPHjE. 

870. The name of the class next to be described, the Aca- 
lephae, is derived from the stinging power possessed by nearly 
all the animals composing it. The word is the Greek term for 
nettles; and by the designation sea-nettles, sta?ig-fishes, &c, these 
animals are popularly known, as well as by another, also re- 
pressive of a character by which the group is distinguished, 
jelly-fish. It is rather difficult to give any description of the 
structure of the class that shall include all the members of it, 
so much do they vary among each other. They all differ from 
the Polypifera in being unattached to solid bodies, and in hav- 
ing the power of freely moving through the sea; and they differ 
from the Echinodermata in not being covered with a dense in- 
tegument. Tneir extreme softness is one of their most re- 
markable characters. Some of them attain considerable size, 
yet with an almost entire absence of any hard support or frame- 
work. Indeed, it is only in a few species that any such exists; 
and thus we have here a remarkable contrast with the Polypi- 
fera, in which the absence of a firm skeleton was seen to be the 
exception, not the rule. 

871. The tissues of the Acalephae are so soft, that they seem 
almost like masses of jelly, whence originated their common 
name. They consist of a sort of network of animal filaments, 
the interspaces between which are filled up with water; and 
so large a proportion does this bear, that it drains away when 
the animal is kept out of its element for a short time, leaving 
but a thin film of membrane behind it. 

872. The arrangement of the mouth, stomach, and other 
organs, is subject to great variation in the different subdivisions 
of this class; and we here encounter the very remarkable fact 
of the existence of animals of complex structure and varied 
powers, which do not possess any regular mouth, but imbibe 
their food like plants by root-like filaments. Owing to the 
difficulty of examining the structure of beings which can be so 
imperfectly preserved, however, the organization of many of 
the more curious species is as yet very imperfectly understood ; 
and it will be better to confine ourselves here to the considera- 
tion of those most certainly known. 

873. One of the commonest forms of this class is the medusa, 
which is often seen floating in vast numbers on calm sunny 
days, at a little distance from the shore. The animal consists 

912. How is this twenty-first class distinguished? 

913. What of the most common form ? 






40S 



ZOOLOGY. 



of a large umbrella-shaped disk, from the under surface of 
which hang down four broad and long tentacula. Both disk 
and tentacula exhibit a very beautiful assemblage of colours, 
like those of the rainbow, when the rays of the sun are reflected 
from their surface. On the under side of the disk is seen the 
mouth, situated in the centre, and surrounded by the origins 
of the tentacula. This is the entrance to a stomach, which 
lies in the middle of the disk, and is surrounded by four ovarial 
chambers, having separate external orifices. The animal may 
thus be compared, in some degree, to a sea-anemone detached 
from its base, and swimming with its mouth downwards. The 
membrane of the disk extends much beyond the stomach and 
ovarial chambers (which may be described as occupying the 
part corresponding to that included between the metallic 
stretchers of the umbrella) ; and this broad, free margin is 
endowed with muscular powers, and performs a series of re- 
gular undulations, by which the animal is propelled through the 
water. 




Medusa : A, under surface, showing the mouth in the centre, surrounded 
by the tentacula, and the ovarial chambers exterior to the origins of these; 
B, side view, showing the tentacula hanging down in their natural position 

874. The extreme softness of the tissues of these Medusa is 
an obvious reason why they should not expose themselves to 
the rough surface of the ocean, where they would be beaten to 
pieces by the waves, or to the proximity of the shore, from which 
they would soon receive fatal injury. Although so soft, how- 
ever, they have the power of mastering prey of much firmer 
structure ; and hard Crustacea, as well as other marine animals 
of higher organization, supply them with food. It is probable 
that the stinging power with which the tentacula are furnished, 
assists them in mastering some of the animals upon which 
they feed ; but this can have scarcely any effect upon Crustacea. 



914. Describe the diagrams. 

915. What other peculiarities are named 



CLASS ACALEPH^ THE MEDUSA. 499 

875. The medusa shares in another property possessed by- 
most of the class — that of luminosity or phosphorescence. It 
is chiefly to the smaller tribes, accumulating in immense num- 
bers, and so transparent as to escape notice by day, that the 
occasional phosphorescence of the sea is due. This very beau- 
tiful phenomenon may be seen not unfrequently on the shores 
of Britain, but it is most splendid in warmer seas, especially 
in the Mediterranean. In the midst of the diffused luminosity, 
caused by the glow of innumerable multitudes of small Acalephae, 
and even of animalcules far smaller, the larger ones shine out 
like stars in the milky way. The cause of this beautiful appear- 
ance is ill understood. It has been ascertained to exist in a se- 
cretion formed from the surface, which can be washed off, and 
can thus communicate the phosphorescence to various fluids, 
in which it seems to remain until decomposition has taken place. 
The light is rendered more brilliant when exhibited by the ani- 
mal itself, by any thing which irritates it ; and this fact is ob- 
served in the case of most luminous animals. 

876. An interesting species, allied in general form to the me- 
dusa, but differing from it in a remarkable particular, is the 
rhizostojna (root-mouth). No mouth is seen in the centre of the 
inferior side of the disk, but the stomach sends canals into the 
substance of the tentacula, which terminate in a number of mi- 
nute pores at the extremity of those organs. By these small 
pores, as by the roots of plants, nourishment is absorbed into 
the system ; for the ends of the tentacula fix themselves like 
suckers upon the surface of the animal they have grasped, and 
imbibe its juices. These and other Acalephae, which move 
through the water by the undulations of their membranous disk, 
are included in the order Pulmoni&rada. There is reason to 
believe that some of them possess organs of vision, for little 
red spots, similar to what are known to be simple forms of eyes 
in other tribes, are observed at the edge of the disk; and their 
mode of swimming often displays a power of avoiding obstacles 
which cannot otherwise be accounted for. All the Acalephae 
of this order exhibit a very regular disposition of their parts 
around a centre, so as to be truly radiated animals. Some of 
them attain a diameter of two or three feet. 

877. A curious little group, allied in some respects to the last, 
is one of which examples are rarely seen on our coast. The 
animals composing it are distinguished by the possession of a 
very delicate cartilaginous plate in the place of a membranous 
disk. In the porpita this plate is round ; in the beautiful little 
velella it is oval, and has a vertical plate or crest, which rises 
above the surface, and acts as a sail when the animal is float- 

916. What other varieties are described ? 









500 ZOOLOGY. 

ing at the level of the water. On the under side of the horizon- 
tal plate, the organs of nutrition are disposed ; hut instead of a 
single stomach and four tentacula, we find here a large number 
of tendril-like filaments, termed cirrhi, the base of each of which 
is dilated into a cavity ; and the one in the centre being more 
largely developed than the rest, may be regarded as the princi- 
pal stomach, into which food is received by the suckers at the 
extremities of the numerous appendages. Being partly pro 
pelled by the rowing motion of these organs, the animals of this 
group are designated by the term Cirrhigrada. Large num- 
bers of the velella have been occasionally driven by the wind on 
the western shores of Britain. 

878. The next tribe of Acalephae deserving notice, is one in 
which the body is furnished with rows of cilia upon its surface, 
and is propelled through the water by the vibration of these mi- 
nute organs. Hence this order is termed Ciliograda. In many 
of the animals belonging to it, the radiated form is very evident, 
so that they are easily distinguished from those of any other 
tribe. But, in some species, a very curious modification pre- 
sents itself, which, if external form alone were relied on, would 
separate them from others, to which their internal structure shows 
them to be closely allied. 

879. Among the former, one of the most interesting is the 
berde pileus, a small animal not unfrequently found on the coast 
of Scotland. When at rest in the water, it looks like a bright 
globe of jelly, about half an inch in diame- 
ter. An opening is seen at each pole of the (\ 
globe ; one of these is the mouth, and at the jV 

'other the alimentary canal, which runs 
straight across the body, terminates. Its I 
surface is marked by eight bands, running, N 
as it were, from pole to pole. These bands 
seem to be of firmer texture than the rest of 
the body, and on them are placed the rows 
of cilia, which can act either together or 
separately, so as to give every possible va- Beroe: a a, tentacula; 
riety of motion to the body. The animal b : month ; c, term.na- 
usually swims by means of them, mouth t!on ot ,ntestme - 
forwards, through the water; and thus a current of water is 
driven into the stomach, without any further effort on the part 
of the animal. But it is provided with other means of obtaining 
its food, in two long tentacula, which arise from the posterior 
part of the body, and are furnished with a number of lateral fil- 
aments; these can all be withdrawn and folded into two cavities 
excavated, as it were, in the substance of the body, and are 

917. What is remarkable in ihese ? 




ACAJLEPHjE THE BEROE PILEUS. 501 

easily unrolled when required for use. These animals are very- 
lively in their movements; and a few of them, placed in a tum- 
bler of sea-water, may be watched with much interest. Their 
long filaments appear to serve as fishing-lines for entrapping 
prey of much firmer structure than that of their own bodies. 

880. Allied to the beroe in structure, but differing widely in 
external form, is a very curious species found in the Mediterra- 
nean, the Ctstum veneris, or Girdle of Venus. This is a ribbon- 
shaped jelly-fish, sometimes attaining the length of six or eight 
feet, its breadth not being as many inches. Its mouth is not at 
one end, but in the centre of one of the sides ; and the alimen- 
tary canal, short and straight like that of the beroe, runs across 
to the other, and terminates there. Both margins are covered 
with cilia : by the vibration of these, the animal is propelled 
through the sea; and they must also serve to convey its food to 
the mouth, as it has no tentacula. Several species exist, which 
are intermediate in form between the beroe and the cestum veneris, 
having the rounded body of the former, but a sort of wing-like 
extension on each side, like the thin flat surface of the latter. 

881. A very common form of this class, in some climates, is 
the physalus, known to the sailors as the Portuguese man-of-war. 
This is distinguished by its large air-bag, surmounted by a ver- 
tical membrane or crest, which usually 
floats above the surface of the water, and 
is acted upon by the gentle breeze, in the 
same manner as the little sail of the vel- I 
ella. The animal organs placed below 
are very like those of the Cirrhigrada. No 
distinct stomach can be perceived; but 
the tentacula are dilated at their roots into 
chambers, of which each may perhaps be 
regarded as a digestive cavity. Some of 
the tentacula are very long, and hang down Physalus. 

in the water to the depth of fifteen or twenty feet, when the ani- 
mal is floating. They possess considerable stinging power, and 
probably serve to entrap the food upon which the snorter tenta- 
cula, with their sucker-like extremities, then affix themselves, for 
the purpose of taking up nutriment by absorption. These Aca- 
lephae have been termed hydrostatic, from the power they possess 
of rising or falling in water, by increasing or diminishing the 
bulk of the air-bag ; but by what means they effect this change 
is not known. 

882. In some species, comprehended with the physalus in the or- 

918. What curious varieties are named here? 

919. What species and varieiy are described ? 

920. Describe the tribe shown in the diagram. 




502 ZOOLOGY. 

der Physograda, sevt ral small air-bags exist, instead of a single 
large one. These are usually fixed to the same stalk, like currants 
upon their stem ; and this rises out of the apparatus of tentacula, 
&c, of which the animal may be said really to consist. 

883. The Acalephae inhabit all climates, but the largest forms 
are to be seen in tropical seas. The beroe is so abundant in 
the Arctic ocean, as to serve as an important article of food to 
the whale. In voyaging between the tropics, the mariner will 
often encounter fleets of some one species, extended over a very 
large tract, and, a few miles farther, will fall in with another. 
Their gregarious character is very remarkable ; and it is gene- 
rally by such assemblages that the luminous appearance of the 
sea is produced, although other marine animals contribute to 
this interesting phenomenon. The Medusa and the Cestum vene- 
ris, and other jelly-fish of larger size, are frequently seen glow- 
ing with light in the midst of the diffused brilliancy which is 
due to the minuter tribes. The animal which is most commonly 
the cause of this appearance on the western shores of Britain 
is very minute, being about the size and appearance of a grain 
of boiled sago. In all cases the light is increased by any cause 
which irritates the animal; and a gentle pressure will often 
cause it to dart out for a time with great vividness. 



CLASS XXII.— POLYPIFERA. 

884. The animal character of the beings composing the class 
Polypifera was formerly doubted, as that of the Sponges is at 
present. The structures which they form, known as corals, 
corallines, &c, have often so much of the plant-like aspect, 
and sometimes also of an apparently woody structure, that, 
even in recent times, naturalists have been deceived into a be- 
lief in their vegetable nature. This belief has been strength- 
ened, in the minds of uninformed observers, by the flower-like 
appearance of the separate polypes by which these structures 
are formed ; for they may be easily mistaken, upon a superficial 
view, for blossoms growing upon their submarine stems. In 
many places the idea of their partly vegetable nature is still 
popularly retained ; the common name for those species of 
Sea Anemone and its allies, which are distinguished for the 
brilliancy of their colours when expanded, being animal flower*. 

885. Another popular error in regard to this group, is the at- 
tributing the formation of coral # to insects, and the supposition 
that it is their habitation, constructed under the same circum- 



921 . What is said of their habits ? 

922. Why is the nature of this class doubted ? 



CLASS POLYPI TEKA. DESCRIPTION. 503 

stances as the comb of bees or the pyramids of the termites. 
Now, the real fact is, that the masses of coral, madrepore, &c, as 
well as the sea-fans and other similar structures, with many 
smaller and more delicate ones, of which some are ranked 
among the the sea-weeds and others commonly known as coral- 
lines, are the skeletons of the animals by which they are produced, 
and are to be regarded as parts of the living structure, so long 
as the flesh which clothes or lines them retains its vitality. 
They bear this resemblance to plants, however, that the differ- 
ent parts which ar^ united into one mass are capable of exist- 
ing separately, and may be regarded as distinct individuals, 
like the several leaf-buds on a tree ; but still they are all united 
by living tissue, and, so long as this connection is maintained, 
they must be considered as forming but one. 

886. If, for example, the stem of the common red coral be 
examined, when clothed with the living flesh, its surface is 
seen to be scattered over with polypes, the structure of each 
of which bears some resemblance to that of the sea-anemone; 
but these, so far from being independent of one another, like 
so many sea-anemones attached to the same rock, are connected 
by a system of vessels, which traverse the flesh, and bring 
them all into communication. Nevertheless, any one of these 
would live, if detached from the rest, and would gradually pro- 
duce others, until a new structure is formed, similar to that of 
which it was a part. Moreover, if apiece of gelatinous flesh be 
stripped from the stem, this will be competent to form both new 
polypes and a new skeleton, 

887. It is thus seen that, if the whole stem with its living 
flesh be considered as forming one animal, we have only to re- 
gard it as capable of being multiplied by subdivision to a great 
extent, in order to account for its phenomena. And this is pro- 
bably the most correct way of viewing the matter, since, as a 
general rule, the lower the degree of organization, and the 
greater the resemblance among the several parts, the greater is 
the power of being thus multiplied. We shall presently find 
that not only the polypes themselves can exist separately and 
form new structures, but that even these may be cut into frag- 
ments, of which every one shall reform all the parts wanting to 
the complete being. 

888. Such compound beings, then, of which the polypes only 
form a part, (like the leaves or flowers of plants,) are not im- 
properly termed Polypifera, or Polype-bearing Animals. But 
there are many kinds of Polypes which have no tendency to 

923. What is said ol coral, &c\? 

924. What ot their structure and habits ? 

925. What of their reproductive power ? 




504 200L0G1. 

this kind of aggregation, and which are ne^er found but in a 
solitary state. Such are the Sea-Anemones, and the Hydra, or 
Fresh-water Polypes. And various degrees of intimacy of con- 
nection between the Polypes of compound structures may be 
traced in different species ; some of these will be hereafter 
noticed. 

889. Whilst the real nature of polype-structures was mis- 
understood, their classification could not be effected on correct 
principles. The particular form of the stem and branches of a 
coral cannot be assumed as a guide, for this is liable to great 
alteration under varying circumstances of growth, and it differs 
much in species, of which the structure of the individual parts 
is much alike. Nor can its character — as whether massive or 
light, stony or flexible— be correctly made the ground of pri- 
mary division, since some are thus associated in which the struc- 
ture of the living animal is very different, and others widely 
separated in which it is nearly allied. The only sound method 
is to regard the structure of the individual polypes as the basis 
of classification, and to draw secondary characters only from 
tiie circumstances of their association. In this way we shall 
be able to form four orders, characterized by four distinct 
types of structure ; in each of these we shall find polypes ex- 
isting almost or altogether independently of one another, and 
species closely allied to these, in which they are intimately 
associated. 

890. As the distinguishing characters of these orders cannot 
be understood without a knowledge of the structure of the 
polypes belonging to each, it will be better to proceed at once 
to the description of them — the amount of popular information 
on the subject being small. We shall begin with the one gene- 
rally accounted the simplest. 

Order I. — Hydroida. 

891. The hydra, or fresh-water polype, is a minute animal, 
often found in great abundance, clustering round aquatic plants 
in stagnant pools. It seems to consist only of a kind of bag, 
constituting its stomach, round the mouth of which is disposed 
a circle of long arms, or tentacula; whilst the opposite end is 
prolonged into a foot, terminated by a kind of sucker, to which 
the animal attaches itself. Two kinds are commonly met with 
in this country ; the H. viridis, or green polype, and the H.fioco, 
or brown polype. These differ not only in colour, but in the 
relative length of their tentacula and bodies. In the green hy- 
dra, the arms cannot be extended much beyond the length of 



926. Into how many orders are they divided l 

927. What of the first and iis species ( 




CLASS POLYPIFERA THE HYDRA. 505 

\he body, the whole animal being less than an inch from the 
foot to their extremities, when at full stretch. But in the brown 
hydra, the arms often extend themselves as much as seven or 
eight inches. 

892. The changes of form in this polype are very remark- 
able. The body has sometimes the shape 
of a long cylinder, whilst at others it is 
contracted into a sphere, the arms hav- 
ing shrunk alike into small projections 
around the mouth. This appearance is 
generally presented when the stomach 
is replete with food. 

893. The hydra is an extremely vo- 
racious animal; and, although little able 
to move from place to place, it secures 
an abundant supply of food by its long 
arms, which serve as so many fishing- 
lines. When any aquatic worm or insect Hydra, 
touches one of them, it is entrapped by it, and other arms are 
speedily brought to its' assistance ; so that, by the simultaneous 
contraction of the whole, the prey is conveyed to the mouth, even 
if strong enough to make powerful resistance. There is reason 
to believe that the arms are furnished with a series of sharp 
spines, which can be made to transfix the object they enfold, 
and that these convey into it a poisonous liquid, by which its 
death is soon occasioned, even if it be not swallowed. Not 
unfrequently the prey can be seen to move about violently 
within the stomach, fur some little time; but the powerful di- 
gestive secretion speedily begins to act upon it, and its son 
parts are dissolved, the hard ones being unusually ejected by the 
mouth. When this solution has been performed, the fluid 
which results from it is seen to be distributed by a kind of cir- 
culation, through the walls of the stomach and the arms. 

894. Nothing in the history of the hydra is so remarkable as 
its power of being multiplied by division, and of repairing the 
effects of other rough treatment. In regard to this, there really 
seems no limit. Not only can the body reproduce the arms, 
the mouth reform the tail, and the tail the mouth, but from a 
minute fragment the perfect hydra is reproduced, so that an 
individual, cut up into forty or fifty pieces, will be converted 
ii.to as many separate polypes. Two bodies, also, may be 
grafted together by the side, the tail, or in any other way; and 
monsters with two heads, two tails, &c, maybe easily produced. 
It was, in fact, on account of this tenacity of life and tendency 
to reproduction as a consequence of injury, that the name hydra 



928. How are its habits described? 









506 ZOOLOCY. 



(after the fabulous monster of ancient times) was uiven to this 
little creature, when first discovered about a century ago. The 
power of any one part to perform the functions of the rest, is 
remarkably shown by the fact, that the polype may be turned 
inside out — so that what was before the lining of ihe stomach 
becomes the external integument, and vice versa — without its 
comfort being perceptibly impaired. 

895. The hydra is not known to subdivide spontaneously, how- 
ever; but it propagates itself by a process resembling the bud- 
ding of plants. A little knob first projects from the side of its- 
body ; this enlarges, and from the top of it are seen to spring a 
number of small processes, which are the arms. In the centre 
of these an opening appears, constituting the mouth of the young 
polype, which gradually assumes the form of its parent, and be- 
gins to catch prey for itself. Still, however, the cavity of its 
stomach communicates with that from which it was at first pro- 
longed ; but the passage is gradually narrowed, and at last ob- 
literated. When quite independent, the young polype detaches 
itself from the parent, and has no further relation with it. Seve- 
ral of these buds may spring from the same polype at once, 
provided it be well supplied with food, and the temperature be 
warm ; and a second generation may even show themselves upon 
the first, whilst still continuous with the parent structure. 

896. No other organs of sensation than the arms, which evi- 
dently serve as instruments of touch, can be detected in the hy- 
dra ; but it is obviously influenced in its movements by light, per- 
haps in somewhat the same manner as plants are affected by 
that agent, and probably without possessing any thing like a 
sense of sight. It has various means of changing its place, and 
uses a great number of devices for entrapping its prey, so that 
it is an extremely interesting animal to the microscopic observer. 
A very low power is suflicient to enable its general structure 
to be perceived, and its habits to be watched. 

897. The entire substance of the hydra is soft, and no part 
seems possessed of greater firmness than the rest. In some 
other species, however, we find a tendency to the consolidation 
of the exterior into a kind of horny tube or sheath ; and when a 
number of polypes are associated together, a compound struc- 
ture is thus produced. In the Tubularidae it would seem as if 
the lower end of the body (terminated in the hydra by the suck- 
er or foot) were greatly prolonged, so as to form a tube, the ex- 
terior of which is somewhat horny, and is continuous with the 
exterior of the body, while the lining of it is soft, and seems an 
extension of that of the stomach. Into this tube the stomach, 

929 What of its vitality and reproductiveness ? 
930. Wherein do they resemble plants ? 









HYPR01DA THE SRRTULARIDJB. f>07 

or polype, opens at its lower part by a throat-like aperture, which 
is capable of being enlarged or contracted, or entirely closed. 
The (ubularia is a marine animal, and the tube, which often at- 
tains the length of from eight to twelve inches, is attached at its 
base to rocks. A very curious circulation of fluid takes place 
within it, the current passing up one side and down the other; 
this appears independent of any movement of the polype at its 
summit. In some species, the tubes send ofFbuds or branches, 
and the polypes do not appear at their extremities until they are 
fully formed, which shows that the horny tube, and the contained 
membrane, are themselves endowed with independent vitality. 

898. In another group we find the polype itself enclosed in a 
horny cell of similar character, from which its body can be pro- 
truded in search of food. This is the case in the family of Sek- 
itrLABiDJB, so named from the Scrtidaria, which is its most com- 
mon and characteristic genus. In these 
compound structures, the cells are con- 
nected by stems and branches, in the 
same manner as the buds of a plant ; 
and through the base of each cell there 
is a canal, lined, as in the Tubularia, 
by an extension of the lining membrane 
of the polype, and uniting with the 
channels which pass through the whole 
structure. Thus all the polypes are 
brought into connection with each other, 
and with the general mass or poly- Portion of Sertularia: a a, 
pary ; and the circulation of fluid, which polype cells with polypes ; 
may be observed to take place in the b 6 > ovanal veSicles ' 
stem and branches, independently of any mechanical action of 
the polypes, proves the vitality of the former. Indeed, we 
may rather say that the polype is an extension of the lining 
membrane of the stem, than the latter a prolongation of the sto- 
mach of the polype ; for the stem and cells upon it are formed 
before the polype makes its appearance ; and all new buds 
proceed from the former, whilst the latter occasionally drops off 
and is renewed. 

899. These polyparies, formed by the association of hydraform 
polypes, are among the most graceful and elegant of all the 
structures with which this class presents us. They are of mi- 
nute size, when compared with the massive productions of other 
tribes ; and the uniform absence of stony deposit gives them a 
degree of flexibility which adds much to their gracefulness. 
There are few shores on which some forms of them may not be 

931. What s peculiar in their structure ? 

932. Wha» species is found in a shell ? 




508 ZOOLOGY. 

picked up. They are commonly mistaken for sea-weeds. The 
genera are formed according to the disposition of the cells. 
Thus, in the Sertularia these are closely set against one another 
on both sides of the stem and branches ; in the Plumularia they 
are only on one side; and in the Campanularia they are seen as 
bell-shaped terminations to their sub-divisions. 

900. The mode in which propagation takes place in the Tu- 
bularidse, is that in which it is occasionally effected in the hy- 
dra — the separation of little gemmules, like those of the sponge, 
from the tissues of the body. These gemmules swim about for 
some time, and when they have fixed themselves, they soon lay 
the foundation of the solid structure, which makes some pro- 
gress before the polype appears. In the Sertularidae, however,* 
the polypes, being enclosed in cells, do not share in this func- 
tion, for which a special apparatus is evolved. A set of horny 
vesicles (b b), usually much larger than the polype cells, are 
developed at intervals from particular parts of the stem and 
branches, and it is in these that the reproductive bodies or 
gemmules are formed. Each vesicle is provided with a lid, 
which falls off when the gemmules are mature and ready to 
swim forth; and the vesicle itself afterwards shrivels and drops 
away, like the seed-vessel of a plant that has shed its seeds. 
The whole of this process very much resembles the fructifica- 
tion of mosses, in the mode in which it is carried into effect. 

901. These are the principal forms of Polypifera allied in 
structure to the Hydra, and forming an order which may be 
termed that of Hydroida, or Hydra-form Polypes. This order 
contains three families — the first of which includes no more than 
the genus Hydra, the only solitary polype belonging to this or- 
der that does not form a horny tube or cell; the second, that 
of TuBULARTDiE, is a small one, including but few distinct forms ; 
whilst the third, the Sertularid*:, is a very numerous family. 
The order is pretty uniformly distributed over the globe — not 
abounding more in tropical than in temperate regions. Scarcely 
any fossil remains of it are to be found. 

Order II. — Helianthoida. 

902. A common form of polype, apparently so different from 
the hydra that the relationship between them would not have 
been suspected by an uninformed observer, is the actinia, or 
sea-anemone. There are probably no shores over the whole 
globe, except the very coldest, on which some species of this 



933. What of its peculiar structure ? 

934. What of its propagation ? 

935. How is this order classified ? 






HELTANTTTOTDA THE ACTINIA, OR SEA- ANEMONE. 500 

interesting creature are not to be found. Although so different 
in aspect from the hydra, it is essentially the same in struc- 
ture. The mouth is in the centre of the upper surface, and 
is surrounded by tentacula ; but these are numerous, and 
arranged in several rows. The under side forms a large suck- 
er or disk; by this a very firm hold is taken of the rock or other 
surface to which the animal adheres. We may thus liken the 
body of the sea-anemone to that of the hydra in its greatest state 





Actinia seen from above. Section of Actina : a, cavity of 

stomach ; 6, surrounding chambers. 

of contraction. There is this important difference, however ; the 
stomach does not occupy the whole cavity of the body, but 
only the central portion ; and the space between its wall and 
the outer integument is divided by vertical membranous parti- 
tions, passing directly from one to the other, into a number of 
radiating chambers, in which the germs of young detinue are 
produced, and sometimes nearly matured. The tentacula are 
hollow, and their cavity is continuous with that of those cham- 
bers ; at the extremity of each is a small aperture, through which 
water is occasionally taken in, and then ejected with consider- 
able force. This process seems to be of the nature of the ac- 
tion of respiration in higher animals. 

903. The tentacula of the sea-anemone can be contracted in 
the same manner as those of the hydra, and they are furnished 
with a sort of sucker at their extremities, by which they can 
draw towards the mouth any substance which comes in con- 
tact with them. Although each seems weak in itself, the com- 
bined action of many is sufficiently effectual for maintaining 
an ample supply of food. These animals are extremely vora- 
cious. Not being able to move from place to place in search 
of particular kinds of nutriment, they are adapted to digest 
almost any which comes within their reach. Shell-fish and 
small Crustacea appear to be their usual diet. These are 



936. What of the ui^rams ? 

937. What of the habu«» and structure of these ? 



f>10 ZOOLOGY. 

swallowed alive, in spite of their struggles, but are soon de- 
stroyed by the powerful solvent action of the juices of the sto- 
mach. The hard portions are ejected from the mouth, and in 
getting rid of them from its stomach, the actinia often everts the 
lining of the latter through its entrance, so as almost to turn its 
body inside out. There is reason to believe that this some- 
times takes place completely, and that the animal remains in 
that condition; its exterior integument, and the lining of its 
stomach, being as mutually convertible as those of the hydra. 

904. The muscular force exerted by the sea-anemone is often 
very considerable. It will retain large shells within its mouth, 
in spite of strong efforts to withdraw them ; and it takes such 
firm hold, by its fleshy base, of the inequalities of the surface 
upon which it is attached, that it is often easier to tear the 
animal structure than to detach it entire. It can, however, 
easily quit its hold, and has the power of crawling over a solid 
surface, somewhat in the manner of a slug, by the alternate 
contraction and extension of different parts of its disk. At other 
times it will contract itself into the form of a ball, altogether 
quitting its attachment, and committing itself to the mercy of 
the waves, by which it is carried to some new abode. 

905. The contraction and expansion of the tentacula are 
partly influenced by the state of the atmosphere and the degree 
of light to which the animals are exposed. They usually dis- 
play themselves to the most advantage in shallow water, when 
the sky is bright and the air clear, but when the sun does not 
shine directly upon them. In lowering or stormy weather, 
they contract themselves, sometimes to such an extent that the 
tentacula are entirely hidden, the body assuming the form of a 
hemisphere attached by its flat surface. This is usually their 
state, also, when uncovered, as they frequently are, by the 
receding of the tide, in the places they usually haunt, since 
they seldom fix themselves beneath low-water mark. This 
alternation is, therefore, probably advantageous to them ; and 
when these animals are kept for observation (as they may 
very easily be) it is desirable to imitate it — changing the water 
daily, and allowing them to lie uncovered for an hour or two 
each day. 

906. The powers enjoyed by the actinia of reproducing dif- 
ferent parts which have been removed, and of multiplication 
by the division of its body, are nearly as great as those already 
described in the hydra. It may be divided either vertically or 
transversely ; and each part will, in time, supply what was 
deficient, and become an entire animal. This reproduction has 

938. What of its muscular power ? 

939. What of its habits and faculties ? 






HELIANTHOIDA THE SEA-ANEMONE. 511 

taken place, in some instances, from small fragments; but it 
does not appear that the same number can be reproduced by 
the subdivision of one, as in the hydra. We do not find here 
the same process of multiplication by buds, as in the hydra, 
but distinct germs, or ova, are formed in the radiating cham- 
bers which surround the stomach (hence called ovarial cham- 
bers) ; and from these, as from the eggs of higher animals, 
new beings like the parent are produced. The development of 
them may take place whilst yet within the body of the parent; 
and thus, as the young ones pass out from the mouth, it appears 
to cast them up from its stomach. 

907. The Actinia serve to restrain the excessive multiplica- 
tion of the small Crustacea and shell-fish, and also of the smaller 
species of fish, as well as of other tribes on which they prey. 
In their turn they serve as the food of the larger species of 
these tribes. They are not unpalatable articles of food for man, 
and are used by the inhabitants of some coasts as ordinary 
articles of diet, whilst on others they are esteemed as delicacies. 
Along the shores of Britain there is a remarkable neglect of 
these and other marine productions, to which recourse might 
be had in times of scarcity, even if they be not constantly em- 
ployed. 

908. The sea-anemone is not the only solitary polype pos- 
sessing the kind of structure which has just been described. 
Several other species exist, in which the same type is presented 
with various modifications. Thus, in the Jlctinodendron, the 
tentacula are branched ; and in the Lucernaria, they are set 
in bunches upon a few large arms. But these have the same 
general structure of the stomach and radiating chambers. 

909. There are some among these solitary species which 
form a stony deposit in the substance of their base, and in the 
membranous partitions between the radiating chambers. Of 
these one small species inhabits the British seas ; it belongs to 
the genus Caryophyllia. A very beautiful coralline formation 
of this description is that produced by the Fungia : an animal 
allied to the sea-anemone, and inhabiting only tropical seas. It 
consists of a thick round plate, sometimes several inches in 
diameter, from one surface of which arise thin vertical plates 
radiating very regularly from the centre to the circumference. 
This is, in fact, a single cell of a large solitary polype ; and from 
it the structure of other coralline masses will be understood. 

910. The cells of such solitary polypes are not always round, 
but are sometimes very much prolonged in one direction, so 
that the depression in the centre, marking the place of the 

940. What of their utility ? 

941 Whal other species are described f 



512 



ZOOLOGY. 



mouth, towards which all the radiating plates are directed, 
becomes a long groove. These stony masses contain a con- 
siderable quantity of animal matter, by which the particles of 
carbonate of lime are glued together, and when a sufficiently 
fresh specimen of a stony coral is submitted to the action of an 
acid which dissolves these, the animal substance will retain 
its form. It appears, therefore, that we are to regard them as 
standing in the same relation to the simple tissues of these beings, 
as bone does to the more highly organized structure of the 
Vertebrata ; both being produced by the consolidation of the 
soft living tissues by earthy matter, but the bone, for obvious 
purposes, being made more susceptible of subsequent altera- 
tions. 




Mass of AstraBa Viridis : a, a, expanded polypes ; 6, b, polypes withdraw 
into their cells ; c, c, stony mass uncovered by flesh. 

911. The number of stony corals, formed by the compound 
Polypifera, is very great ; and of the more massive kinds a 
large proportion belongs to this order. Those which are to be 
ranked as the skeletons of animals allied in structure to the 
sea-anemone, are distinguished by a character very easily re- 
cognised. In each cell, however minute it may be, the arrange- 
ment of radiating plates described in the Fungia is seen ; and 
from the presence of these thin plates, or lamella, the whole of 
this group of corals and madrepores have been designated as 
lamelliform. A lamelliform coral is, then, always formed by a 
polype similar to the sea-anemone (or artinifonn) ; and thus, by 
attending to the mode in which the growth of the coral depends 
upon the structure of the animal, we obtain a valuable charac- 
ter, on which we can always rely. 



942. What of the diagram ? 

943. How is i heir formation described 1 



ORDER ASTEROIDA. 513 

912. The individual polypes belonging to such structures are 
connected by a gelatinous flesh enveloping the whole, which 
seems to answer to the membranous pith lining the stems of the 
compound Hydroida. It is by this flesh, rather than by the 
polypes themselves, that much of the stony mass is deposited, 
as may be seen by examining many species in which the inter- 
vals between the cells are considerable. The variety of aspect 
which these masses present is very great, but there is little dif- 
ference, so' far as is known, in the structure and habits of the 
individual polypes, which form part of the beings in their living 
state. Sometimes several lie together in one cell. This is the 
case in the Meandrina, or Brain-stone Coral ; on the surface of 
which we see a number of long tortuous furrows, instead of 
cells approaching to the rounded form, and these furrows, in 
the living state, are occupied by rows of small polypes, arranged 
side by side. The points at which they abutted against each 
other may be distinguished by the difference in the direction of 
the radiating lamellae, which converge towards as many dis- 
tinct centres as there were polypes in each furrow. 

913. None but stony corals are formed by the Polypiferaof this 
order; but there are many of that description which do not 
belong to it, of which we shall hereafter speak. However, it 
is to this order that the greater part of those species belong 
which are concerned in erecting the massive structures known 
at present under the names of coral reefs and islands, as well 
as those which appear to have existed in still greater amount 
in former epochs of the earth's history, and to have given 
origin to the greater part of the limestone rocks which consti- 
tute so large a proportion of the crust known to us. This 
subject will be better considered, however, after the other stony 
corals have been described. It will at once be seen, from the 
absence of all appearance of cells on its surface, that the Red 
Coral does not belong to the order just treated of. This order 
may be denominated that of Jctiniform Polypes, from the gene- 
ral resemblance of the animals composing it to the sea-anemone; 
or Helianthoida, from their similarity in aspect, when expanded, 
to the sun-flower. 

Order III. — Asteroida. 

914. The next order of Polypifera is one which brings us 
nearly to the form of the Sponge. In the compound groups 
we have been last considering, the polypes form an important 
part of the general structure, and in some instances each may 
be regarded as existing almost for itself alone, even where many 
are united by the connecting fleshy matter. But in the group 

944. What other varieties are described ? 



514 



ZOOLOGY. 



to be next treated of, the polypes seem quite subordinate, and 
the general mass seems to have (as in the sponge) much more 
of the character of a single individual. In these structures we 
observe, too, that the hard basis or skeleton is seldom so dis- 
tinct from the living tissue as in the lamelliform corals, the two 
often passing into each other by almost insensible gradations. 
The density of the skeleton varies considerably in the different 
species. Sometimes it is of a spongy character, as in the 
Mcyonia; sometimes of a stiff' horny texture, as in the Gorgonia, 
or Sea-Fan ; and sometimes of a stony hardness, as in the Red 
Coral. 

915. The Mcyonia approach so nearly to Sponges in their 
aspect and general character, that they have by many natural- 
ists been associated with that group. However, they may be 
readily distinguished in the living state by the existence of 
polypes in the former and their absence in the latter. Their 
dried remains, however, cannot be so easily distinguished: in 
fact, it is only by the irregular position of the vents of the 
sponge, contrasted with the great regularity in the polype-cells 
of the Mcyonia (which are their representatives), that a judg- 




Alcyonium : A, portion enlarged, showing the polypes. 

ment can be formed, and even a practised naturalist is at fault 
in determining the character of some of their fossil remains. 
These facts are important in regard to the doubts, formerly 
alluded to, as to the animal character of the Porifera. The 
connection between the two groups is most clearly established 



945. What is the character of this third order? 

946. What genus is shown in the diagram ? 



ORDER ASTEROIDA THE ALCYONIA. 515 

3y the Clione, a curious intermediate genus hereafter described 
(§ 950). 

916. The Alnjonia are found abundantly on many parts of 
the British shores, and are known to fishermen by the names 
of dead-man s hand, sea-fingers, sea-paps, &c, from their flabby 
texture and the peculiar forms they present. Their structure 
is spongy, but they have usually a more distinct envelope than 
the true Sponges, and this has sometimes a leathery character. 
Their interior is traversed by a series of canals, which ramify 
and inosculate with each other; and, on cutting into the mass, 
it is observed that nearly the whole tissue is composed of a 
network of these passages, separated by the animal fibrous 
tissue, which is sometimes condensed into a fabric of consider- 
able firmness. The large canals have no direct external opening, 
however; but they terminate in prominences of the spongy mass, 
from which the polypes protrude. 

917. The polypes themselves have some resemblance to the 
sea-anemone, but they are usually much smaller, and of more 
delicate structure. There are, however, some important dif- 
ferences, upon which the character of the order is founded. 
The tentacula, instead of being numerous, and arranged in se- 
veral rows, are only eight in number, and form one circle. 
They are broad, and almost leaf-like, instead of being round 
and slender. The mouth is situated in the midst of them, and 
leads to the stomach, which occupies the centre of the body; 
around the stomach are the ovarial chambers, separated by radi- 
ating partitions, but only eight in number. The stomach opens 
into the canal, upon the end of which the polype is placed ; and 
all the fluid which enters the mass appears to be taken in 
through these mouths. The ovarial chambers also communi- 
cate with the canal beneath ; indeed, they may be said to be a 
continuation of it, for the partitions between them are prolonged 
downwards into the canal, forming plaits or folds of its lining 
membrane, in which the ova or germs are developed ; so that 
these are produced from the general mass rather than from the 
polype, and the whole structure may be regarded as a higher 
kind of sponge. 

918. The polypes are capable of being drawn entirely within 
the protuberances on the surface of the Alcyonia ; and even 
these projections become, flattened when the animals are in a 
state of great contraction. In this condition they are often left 
by the tide, and if then placed in a glass of clear water, their 
gradual expansion may be watched. The protuberances from 
the surface first show themselves, and the polypes one by one 

947. How does it differ from the; sponge ? 

948. What is peculiar in iheir structure ? 



516 



ZOOLOGY. 






appear at their summits, and slowly expand their tentacula, 
until the whole surface appears covered with delicate blossoms. 
The entire mass, then, not unfrequently swells to twice or thrice 
its original size. If any one of the polypes is irritated, it shrinks 
into its hiding-place, but those near it are not affected. If the 
irritation of the part be prolonged, however, those in the neigh- 
bourhood gradually show themselves influenced by it, and draw 
themselves in ; and in this manner the whole mass may be ul- 
timately affected. The same effects, however, may be produced 
by irritating a portion of the spongy substance intermediate be- 
tween the polypes. From this it is evident, that sensibility to 
impressions is not confined to the polypes alone, but that the 
whole mass must be regarded as possessed of animal proper- 
ties. 

919. The Alcyonia increase by the extension of their own 
structure, as well as by the formation of new germs ; and it is 
interesting to remark that this extension takes place from the 
spongy mass, and not from the polypes. When a bud, or pro- 
longation of the parent structure, is formed, the polypes do not 
at first appear on it, but it has in every important respect the 
character of sponge. This is an instance, to which several 
parallel ones will hereafter be added, of the passage of a being, 
during the progress of its development, through the form cha- 
racteristic of an inferior class, as the insect does when in its ca- 
terpillar state, and the frog whilst a tadpole. 

920. The Alcyonia grow in the same circumstances with 
Sponges ; and their correspondence is further shown by the 
existence of crystals of silex in their tissue, which are not 
found in other polype-structures, the earthy matter in these 
being entirely calcareous. The different species of the Alcy- 
onia, like those of the Sponges, may be distinguished by the 
form of the spicula preserved in the skeleton. 

921. In other forms of this order, we find the skeleton, or 
firm support, in a more concentrated form. Thus, in the 
Gorgonia, a beautiful framework of horny matter, consisting of a 
stem and a minute network of branches, occupies the centre of 
the structure; and this is clothed with a soft flesh, through 
which the channels pass that connect the polypes together. 
This flesh is covered with a firm skin, in which a great amount 
of earthy crystals is deposited, so as to form a crust, and in 
this are the hollows or cells by which the polypes are protected. 
In the dead structures, with which we are familiar under the 
name of sea-fans, the dark horny flexible stem is seen to be co- 



949. What of their habits ? 

950. How do they increase ? 

951. What varieties are described ? 



ASTEROIDA THE PENNATULA. 



517 



vered in many parts with a brittle crust, often brightly coloured, 
which can be scaled off it and crumbled to powder. Between 
the two, in the living state, the fleshy coat existed ; the inner 
part of it being in contact with the exterior of the horny stem, 
which was then soft and scarcely distinct from it, whilst the ex- 
terior part was consolidated by the earthy matter into the firm 
integument. 

922. In the Isis, we find less stony matter on the outside of 
the flesh, but a deposition of it at intervals in the stem, which 
thus obtains a jointed character, being flexible at the points at 
which the horny matter has not been consolidated. And in 
the Red Coral, the entire stem is converted into a very firm 
stony axis, which presents no indication of polype-cells, these 
being excavated only in the flesh that clothes it. The Penna- 
tula, or sea-pen, is an interesting species belonging to the same 




Peiinatula. 



group, and in some respects resembling the red coral. It has 
a stony axis, but this is flexible at the extremi- 
ties ; and it is not attached by a solid basis, but 
is carried about at the mercy of the waves. From 
the central axis, which is nearly straight, a 
regular series of lateral branches passes off on 
each side, like the barbs of a feather, and on 
these the polypes are situated. By the simulta- 
neous movements of their tentacula, the animal (if 
it is to be called one) seems to have some power of 
directing its course, if not of propelling itself 
through the ocean. A small species, which is lu- 
minous at night, inhabits the British seas. 

923. There is one species in this order which differs from all 
the rest, in the consolidation of the exterior rather than of the 
interior tissue, so that a stony tube is formed, instead of a 
central stem. This is the Tubipora musica, of which the skele- 
ton is known as Organ-pipe Coral. The polypes are not here 




Single Polype 
of Pennatula. 



952. What varieties are described here ? 

953. Describe the last -mentioned species. 






51 S ZOOLOGY. 

connected by any system of vessels, or uniting flesh ; each 
lives for itself alone; but a number (probably all produced 
from the same stock, and by offsets from each other) unite for 
mutual support in one structure. Each polype has a cylindri- 
cal form, and its exterior membrane .is progressively consoli- 
dated into a stony tube, which is thus gradually increasing in 
length by a new deposit at its upper end. At certain inter- 
vals, the soft membrane (which is always projecting beyond 
the mouth of the tube) is flattened down into a sort of collar, 
which is consolidated likewise ; and the collars of the neigh- 
bouring tubes, coming in contact with one another, form a sort 
of floor or shelf which greatly strengthens the mass. After 
this collar is formed, the tube is continued as before for an- 
other period, when a similar floor is again produced by the 
simultaneous action of the numerous polypes composing this 
beautiful structure. 

924. To this order the term of Alcyonian Polypifera (from 
the name of one of its principal groups) may be conveniently 
applied ; it is also known by the designation of Asteroida, from 
the star-shaped form presented by the tentacula when expanded. 
Its most luxuriant kinds are natives of tropical seas ; thus, the 
Mcyonium jpoculum, or Neptune's cup, which abounds in the 
neighbourhood of Singapore, is one of the most bulky species 
at present existing. But the smaller tribes abound in our own 
seas. No massive stony polyparies are formed by the animals 
of this order. 

Order IV.— Ascidioida. 

925. The last order of Polypifera far surpasses all the rest 
in the complexity of its organization; although so little dis- 
tinguished from them in external form that a cursory exami- 
nation would not reveal the points of difference. In fact, many 
of the species belonging to it have been associated with the 
Hydra form Polypes, by naturalists of eminence ; and it is only 
by means of a high and clear magnifying power that their true 
structure is capable of being ascertained. The stony character 
of the polyparies formed by others, has led them to be grouped 
with the JLctiniform Polypes ; and it is only within a v&ry recent 
period that opportunities have been afforded for that examina- 
tion of their living condition upon which alone reliance can be 
placed. 

926. The polypes of this order seem more independent of one 
another than they are in the associated groups of the others ; 
but they are not known to exist in an absolutely isolated con- 



954. What is said of this fourth order ? 
955 What ef ecies is described ? 



ASCIDIOIDA THE HOWERBANKIA. 



r>i9 



dition. A species lately discovered on the British shores, the 
Jiowerbankia densa, will afford an excellent illustration of the 
structure of the separate polypes. These arise like buds from 
a sort of creeping stem, which connects them all, and which 
has the power of extending the structure by its own growth; 
but no communication has been observed between the interior 
of this stem and the stomachs of the polypes, like that which 
exists in the Sertularia. Each is enclosed in a horny trans- 
parent sheath, the upper part of which is so flexible as to be 
capable of being drawn inwards by the action of muscles, thus 
closing the mouth of the cell. 

937. The polype itself has, when protruded, the general form 
of the hydra, the mouth being surrounded by ten long and 
slender tentacula. There is this important difference, how- 
ever, that in the Bowerbankia and all the other polypes of this 
order, the arms are fringed with cilia, or little 
hair-like filaments; whilst in the Hydraform 
Polypes no such appendages exist. This 
difference is more important than it would 
at first sight appear, being connected with 
the whole economy of the animal. This 
nydra only obtains its food by grasping with 
its arms that which comes within their 
reach ; but, in the animals under considera- 
tion, the rapid vibration of the filaments, 
which seem to take place at the will of the 
polype, produces currents in the water by 
which a regular stream is brought to- the 
mouth ; and this stream contains many nu- 
tritive particles, from which a selection, 
adapted to the highly organized digestive 
apparatus, may be made. 

928. The mouth opens into a wide tube, 
which may be regarded in the light of the 
oesophagus or gullet of higher animals; 
and this terminates, at its lower end, in a 
narrow orifice, leading to a globular cavity, 
which seems analogous to a gizzard, having 
thick muscular walls, lined with tooth-like 
processes. Here the food seems to be ground 
down before being transmitted to the true 
stomach, a much larger cavity situated below it. The walls 
of this cavity are beset by a number of yellowish-brown spots ; 
and there is reason to believe that these are organs for the se- 
cretion of bile — a fluid .of that aspect being poured from them 




1 c werbankia; a, 
ops< phagus ; 6, giz- 
zard ; c, stomach ; d, 
or .lice of intestine. 



956. What of the diagram ? 



520 ZOOLOGY. 

into the stomach, whilst the digestive process is going on. 
From the upper part of the stomach, not far from the first 
opening, an intestinal tube passes off by a distinct orifice ; and 
this terminates on the outside of the ring to which the tentacula 
are affixed. 

929. The whole of this complicated digestive apparatus seems 
to float in the cavity of a membrane which lines the cell, and 
from the outer layer of which, indeed, the cell is formed (by 
the deposition of horny matter in it), and the interspace is filled 
with fluid. In order to retract it within its sheath, and to draw 
down the upper portion of the latter as its protection, a very 
curious set of muscles is provided ; and the succession of move- 
ments by which this action is effected, is very interesting. The 
polypes of this order are very easily alarmed, and will with- 
draw themselves at the slightest intimation of danger, and they 
exhibit great caution in putting themselves forth again. 

930. The whole process of digestion may be distinctly 
watched in this beautiful little animal. The food obtained by 
the motion of the cilia passes into the mouth, and is propelled 
downwards to the first stomach or gizzard, by the successive 
contraction of the walls of the tube, as in the highest animals. 
After being subjected to a brief trituration there, it is passed 
onwards to the principal stomach, where it remains a conside- 
rable time for digestion, being sometimes regurgitated, for a 
second trituration, to the gizzard. The matter to be rejected 
does not return, as in the lower Polypifera, by the mouth, but 
passes, in the form of little granules (no large substance being 
ever swallowed), into the intestine, where it accumulates into 
small pellets, which are gradually propelled to its outlet by the 
successive contractions of the tube. When they have been 
ejected from it, they are carried to a distance by the reflux of 
the current, which is constantly being driven by the action of 
the cilia to the mouth. No nervous system can be detected in 
these animals, yet its presence may be inferred from the exist- 
ence of distinct muscular structure, of which different parts 
have to be put in action at the same time. 

931. There is considerable variety in the structure of the Poly- 
pifera which have been associated into the group of which this is 

v a specimen, some being more and others less complex; but they 
all agree in these two essential points, the possession of a se- 
cond external orifice to the digestive cavity, and the presence of 
cilia on their arms. By these they are distinguished from all the 
other Polypifera. The latter of these characters has been im- 
bodied in the term Cilio-brachiata (ciliated-armed), which is very 



957. Describe the structure and habits. 

958. What of the varieties ? 



ASCIDIOIDA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 521 

appropriate. They have also been called Bryozoa, from their 
fancied resemblance to mosses , and Ascidioida. from their affin- 
ity to the dscidicp, a group in the lowest class of Mollusca. 

932. The polyparies formed by the animals of this group differ 
considerably from each other in the structure and arrangement 
of their parts. Freq uently they have but a horny texture. Some- 
times, however, stony matter is deposited in the cells, and fills 
up the interspaces between them. This is not a mere excreted 
layer, formed for the habitation of the animal on the surface of 
the gelatinous pulp, but is deposited in the substance of its own 
tissues. For if one of these structures be submitted to the action 
of a dilute acid, its form is not destroyed, but a flexible membra- 
nous substance remains, which completely retains the original 
form, unless submitted to pressure. A very common kind of 
compound structure is the Flustra, which grows in flat expand- 
ed surfaces, often encrusting sea-weeds and other marine bodies, 
but sometimes without any such attachment. This may be 
picked up on almost any of our shores; it is oft^n mistaken for 
a sea-weed, but is distinguishable from it by its greater crisp- 
ness and firmness of texture, and by the cells which may be ob- 
served to cover its surface. These cells are extremely minute, 
and are set closely together, so that a very large number, each 
when alive containing a polype, exists in each specimen. New 
cells and polypes are formed from the sides of the old ones, by 
a process resembling the budding of the hydra; and it not un- 
frequently happens that those at the exterior of the specimen are 
in active life, whilst those of the centre are dead. 

933. The polypes of this order are also reproduced by the for- 
mation of gemmules, somewhat resembling those of Sponges and 
Sertularia, but endowed with greater activity, and with appa- 
rently greater power of directing their movements. These are 
developed from the inner membrane of the cell, and gradually 
increase so as to fill up its cavity, and to cause the death of the 
contained polype. When they at last escape, they swim, like 
animalcules, with a great variety of movements, and seem to 
have a perfect control over the vibrations of the cilia with which 
they are covered, and by which all their motions are produced. 
When they at last fix themselves, they spread themselves out, 
each into a gelatinous film, in the substance of which the out- 
line of cell soon shows itself; and the polype, with all its com- 
plex parts, is developed by degrees. To this first formed cell 
others are soon added. 

934. The Polypifera of this order seem to attain their full de- 
velopment under a less constantly elevated temperature than 

959. What compound structure is cited? 

960. What of their reproduction ? 



522 ZOOLOGY. 

that required by the Helianthoida. Stony corals are formed by 
them in many seas of the temperate zone, and the more delicate 
species abound on our own coasts. This fact is interesting, 
vvhen we compare the fossil with the recent corals, as will be 
presently done. 



935. When we consider the vast extent of the coral forma- 
tions, which are at the present time effecting a change on the 
surface of the globe that has been a fertile theme of astonish- 
ment and admiration, we cannot but be struck with the enormous 
amount of animal existence that must be concerned in produc- 
ing them. Much error has prevailed on this subject, however; 
and in some points exaggerations have been produced, through 
superficial observation. But here, as in almost every department 
of nature, the truth, as disclosed by a more careful examination, 
is far more wonderful than the showy covering in which the 
common love of the marvellous may have enveloped it. 

936. It is generally stated that the coral masses, forming reefs 
or islands, are built up from the depths of the ocean. This is 
not strictly true, for it is well ascertained that none of the species 
which form the massive stony structures of which these are 
composed, can exist at a greater depth than from 80 to 120 feet. 
It is evident, then, that supposing the relative level of the land 
and sea to have been always the same as at present, these coral 
structures must be based on the summits of submarine moun- 
tains, or ridges of hills, which rise from the bottom of the ocean, 
like corresponding hills and ridges upon the dry land ; since 
deep water is almost always to be found in their neighbourhood. 
This is probably true to a certain extent. There is reason to 
believe that solid rock exists at no great depth below the surface 
of some of the islands; and there are many in which it forms 
part of them, a cone of rock rising out of the water, incrusted 
with a terrace of coral. Moreover, it may be stated as a gene- 
ral fact, that there is no part of those seas in which the temper- 
ature, depth of water, and other circumstances, are favourable 
to the operations of the coral-polypes, in which they are not 
constantly at work ; and thus channels are being continually 
rendered narrower and less deep, and harbours are being block- 
ed up, which were formerly accessible. But this takes place 
with less rapidity than is generally imagined. 

937. The coral islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans con- 
stitute a large proportion of the groups with which that vast 
area is scattered. In some instances they are considerably 



961. What inference is authorized in geology ? 

962. What of coral formations ? 



ORDER ASCIDIOIDA CORAL FORMATIONS. 52'* 

elevated above its level, but in general their surface is only 
slightly raised above it. As the polypes do not build above low- 
water mark, it does not become at once apparent how even 
this elevation is attained. It is to be remembered, however, 
that in the tropical ocean there is an almost constant succes- 
sion of waves driven by the trade-wind from east to west. 
These, dashing against the windward side of the islands, break 
off blocks from the masses of coral, which they cast upon the 
summit. An accumulation of these blocks, consolidated by 
smaller fragments, and by the sand resulting from their con- 
stant friction, gradually produces a firm rocky superstratum. 
The surface of this, decomposed by the atmosphere, forms a 
sort of chalky soil, which is well adapted to the growth of 
many kinds of plants ; and the seeds being drifted by the sea, 
or brought through the air by birds, take root in it, so as speedily 
to cover the island with a luxuriant vegetation. Tn the course 
of the growth and decay of successive crops, a thick layer of 
mould gradually covers the previous chalky soil; and this 
affords support to the most beautiful kinds of tropical plants, 
which the humidity of the insular atmosphere causes to flou- 
rish to a degree rarely seen on continents. 

938. Several of the coral islands take the form of rings, con- 
taining large basins of water communicating with the sea, 
which are termed lagoons. These were probably erected on 
the craters of submarine volcanoes, of the existence of many 
of which beneath the Pacific Ocean there can be no doubt. 
They first rise to the surface in the form of circular reefs ; the 
windward side is gradually raised above the sea level by the 
process already described ; but an opening usually remains at 
the leeward side, through which the water that washes into the 
central basin may flow out. As the whole ring is gradually 
elevated, however, the source of this overflow diminishes, 
and gradually ceases ; the leeward channel is filled up by the 
growth of coral, and the lagoon is cut off from the sea. This 
basin, also, is at last filled up by the accumulation of fragments 
of coral, and by the growth of the more delicate species in its 
interior; and at last one nearly uniform surface is produced. 

939. There is reason to believe, however, that in many in- 
stances the coral extends to a much greater depth beneath the 
surface than that in which the animals are known to live ; and 
the question then arises, in what manner was it formed? A 
careful examination of the islands of the Pacific Ocean shows 
us that many of them, which rise considerably above the sur- 
face, are entirely composed of coral. Now, as the coral-polypes 

963. How are islands of coral accounted for? 

964. What of lagoons and their formation ? 



524 ZOOLOGY. 

never build above the level of the sea, it is evident that some 
subterranean movement, probably of a volcanic nature, must 
have lifted these islands from the bed of the ocean. In some 
instances the height at which coral may be found is very great 
— not less than eight or nine thousand feet. It is not improba- 
ble, then, that as the bottom of some parts of the ocean is rising, 
that of others should be falling. If a coral island had been origin- 
ally formed in tr^e usual way, and had then gradually sunk in 
the water, the polypes would have continued to build it up ti 
the surface ; and thus almost any amount of thickness may be 
produced, by a corresponding slow subsidence. 

940. One of the most extraordinary coral growths known, 
is the barrier-reef which stretches along the shores of New 
Holland, at a distance of usually more than a hundred miles 
from the coast. This is above a thousand miles long, and for 
several hundred miles has no break wide enough to give pas- 
sage to a ship. It is scarcely conceivable that a submarine 
ridge of hill should exist, a thousand miles in length, and ap- 
proaching everywhere within one hundred feet of the same 
elevation ; for such a ridge is nowhere seen on the dry land. 
But it is easy to account for this remarkable structure, if we 
suppose that the ridge was formerly more or less elevated 
above the surface, and that its different parts gradually became 
encrusted and capped with coral as they were submerged, after 
which the growth would continue upon the same parts, until 
the whole, being thus depressed and covered, became the con- 
tinuous mass which is now witnessed. That such depressions 
are taking place in some islands of the Pacific, is a fact sub- 
stantiated, not only by the traditions of the natives, but by ob- 
servations made since they have been visited by Europeans. 

941. There are many instances in which the coral structures 
of comparatively recent origin have undergone a metamorpho- 
sis, which causes them to lose in some degree their original 
aspect. Large masses, when long exposed to the air, become 
changed into a solid, often somewhat crystalline, rock, in 
which the traces of organic structure are very indistinct, and 
with which the mountain or secondary limestone closely corre- 
sponds. This is observed in the Bermudas. Moreover, the 
coral sand often becomes agglutinated, by the percolation of 
water through it, into a very hard stone; it is in such a mass 
that the human skeleton, found on the shore at Guadaloupe, 
and now placed in the British Museum, is imbedded. This 
stone, when minutely examined, is seen to consist of a number 
of rounded grains, cemented, as it were, together; and it closely 

965. What oiher volcanic phenomena are cited ? 
^(''G. What of depression aud iubmergiug of land ? 



ORDER ASCIDIOIDA CORAL FORMATIONS. 525 

resembles the rock known to the geologist as oolite. Further, 
where shallow water exists around coral islands, the bottom is 
found to be covered with a layer of white mud, which is formed 
by the decay of the animal matter which held together the par- 
ticles of carbonate of lime in the stony corals ; and these are 
consequently set at liberty in a finely divided state, and fall to 
the bottom in a form which, if dry, would constitute chalk. Thus 
we may trace, very distinctly, the mode in which the three prin- 
cipal kinds of limestone rocks may have taken their origin in 
coral formations. 

942. Now the mountain limestone, as it is termed — a rock 
very abundant in Britain, extending over large areas beneath 
the coal-fields, and sometimes exhibiting a thickness of nearly 
3000 feet — is in some parts evidently composed of accumula- 
tions of shells, stems of encrinites, &c. But in many others 
the remains of corals are very distinct; and these are so 
blended with the neighbouring rock as to make it appear pro- 
bable that the latter also was once in the state of coral, but 
was gradually changed by the process just described. Further, 
the collections of other animal remains are just such as we 
should expect to find on the margin of a coral reef or island 
existing at that epoch ; and a similar process of fossilization is 
taking place on the shores of those existing at the present time; 
the imbedded series of animals only being different. The great 
thickness of the beds of this rock may be very well accounted 
for, in the same manner as the depth of the coralline masses 
of recent formation. 

943. There are observed, in rocks of more recent formation, 
appearances which still more clearly indicate that they too 
were originally formed by coral-polypes. These are often 
found only within narrow limits, as if they had been reefs or 
islands of small size. Thus we find a stone called coral-rag in 
Oxfordshire ; and very distinct coral beds in the crag of the 
eastern coast of England. It is interesting to remark that the 
remains of coral which are found in the older limestones, all 
correspond with those at present abounding near the equator 
and exhibit the lamellifo/m character; whilst they are gradually 
replaced in the newer strata by species more allied to those at 
present existing in temperate climates. This is one of the 
many facts which tend to prove that this part of the earth had at 
some former period a much higher temperature than at present. 

944. We see, then, that vast as are the works of the exist- 
ing species of this class, they are probably far surpassed by the 
accumulations of former ages, which constitute, in some form 



967. How arc the various rocks of limestone explained ? 

968. What in&auce of metamorphosis is cited ? 




523 



ZOOLOGY. 



or other a large proportion of the solid rocks of our terrestrial 
surface. And thus we see the exemplification of a principle 
which has frequently come under our notice — that in the econ- 
omy of Nature nothing is insignificant; and that the most 
gigantic effects may be produced by the multiplication even of 
the humblest among the living inhabitants of the globe. 



CLASS XXIII— PORIFERA. 

945. Of all the beings usually known under the designation 
of Zoophytes, the Sponges and their allies, constituting the class 
Porifera, appear to have the best claim to the title, since they 
present so complete an admixture of the characters of plants 
and animals, that it is difficult to say to which division they 
properly belong. Like plants, they are fixed to one spot during 
the whole of their lives — subsequently, at least, to their first deve- 
lopment; they seem to possess no sensibility, for they can be 
torn or wounded in any way, without showing by their move- 
ments any indication of being affected by the injury, and they 
do not appear to have that power of executing voluntary motions, 
which must be regarded as the distinguishing characteristic 
of animals. On the other hand, they present a structure which 
is not analogous to any thing found in plants, but is similar to 
that of beings undoubtedly belonging to the animal kingdom ; 
with these beings they are connected by intermediate forms, 
presenting a regular gradation of increasing complexity of 
structure and variety of function; and there are certain move- 
ments, both in the adult and in the undeveloped Sponges, which 
are more analogous to those seen in higher animals than to any 
observed in plants. On the whole, then, the evidence for the 
animal character of the Sponges seems to preponderate, and 
they will be accordingly considered here. Still there is no 
doubt that, if they are included in the animal kingdom at all, 
the lowest place in the scale should be assigned to them. 

946. The common Sponge is a sufficiently characteristic form 
of the class, to serve as the foundation of a general account of 
the structure which prevails in it* On looking at its exterior, 
we observe that it is covered by a number of closely set and 
minute orifices ; and that larger openings are disposed at inter- 
vals among these. The former are termed pores, the latter i 
On cutting into the substance of the sponge, it is seen to consist 



969. What other coral productions are named ? 

970. What reflections are suggested ? 

971. What is the character ot the twenty-third class? 



CLASS P0R1FERA THE SPONGES. 527 

of a sort of network of filaments, interlacing together in such a 
manner as to leave large channels and spaces of various forms, 
which communicate with each other. The large channels ter- 
minate in the vents ; and, on tracing any one of them into the 




External surface and sectional view of Living Sponge. 

substance of the sponge, it is seen to divide and send off rami- 
fying branches, which at last lose themselves in the spongy net- 
work that lies around them; and this communicates with the 
pores on the external surface. 

947. The interlacing fibres, of which the walls of the large 
canals, and the spongy tissue between them, are alike composed, 
entirely consist (in the common sponge) of a sort of horny ani- 
mal matter, as is shown by burning a small portion of them. 
But in other species we find tpicula, or needle-like crystals, of 
silex or of carbonate of lime, disposed amongst these, giving to 
the structure much greater firmness, but depriving it, more or 
less completely, of that elasticity which is so useful in the com- 
mon sponge. 

948. The substance known as sponge is, however, but the 
skeleton of the being ; when alive, this fibrous network is 
clothed, within and without, by a thin gelatinous substance, 
very like the white of an egg. This lines all the passages, and 
covers the exterior; but it drains away when the sponge is 
removed from the water. In this the peculiar vital endowments 
of the being appear to reside. These are manifested, not only 
by its slow but regular growth, but by a curious circulation of 
fluid, constantly taking place within the mass. When a sponge 



972. Why are they included among animals ? 

973. What structure is seen in the diagram ? 

974. Describe the living sponge. 



523 ZOOLOGY. 

1 examined in its living state, beneath the water, a constant 
current is seen to issue from the vents ; being made evident by 
the disturbance of the water, and by the movement of particles 
floating in it. It may also be ascertained that a constant flow 
of water takes place inwards through the pores, for small solid 
particles upon their edges are occasionally seen to be sucked 
in. No intermission can be detected, during the life of the 
sponge, in these currents, which evidently have for their object 
to convey the nutritive matter contained in the water into the 
interior of the mass, and also to carry off the particles which are 
to be excreted, since thin films detached from the living tissue 
are seen to pass out from the vents along with the fluid ejected 
from them. 

949. The relative position of the pores and vents differs much 
in the different kinds of sponge. Sometimes all the former are 
on one side, and the latter on the other. Not unfrequently the 
vents are placed on the summit of little conical prominences, 
which look like craters of a volcano ; and the stream issuing 
from them, when seen under a microscope, may be likened to 
a miniature eruption. Sometimes the sponge assumes the form 
of a hollow cylinder, which hangs at one extremity from a 
rock ; the pores are all upon the exterior surface, whilst the 
vents open into the interior cavity, and their united stream 
rushes out with considerable energy from the lower end of the 
cylinder. 

950. Sponges may be multiplied, like plants, by artificial di- 
vision, each portion becoming a new individual, but it does not 
appear that this is their natural mode of increase. They pro- 
pagate by detaching little round gelatinous bodies, termed gem- 
mules, from their living tissue, which in time develop the origi- 
nal form of the parent. These are produced in the network be- 
tween the large canals, into which they find their way; when 
mature, they pass out of the vents in the current which sweeps 
through them, and by which they are conveyed to a distance. 
In these gemmules a peculiar motion, like that of animalcules, 
may be seen for some time ; they swim hither and thither, ap- 
parently with a consciousness of the most advantageous direc- 
tion ; at last they fix themselves, and begin to deposit the 
horny or earthy particles which are to form their skeleton ; and 
the system of canals gradually shows itself in their substance. 
When once they have fixed themselves, they seem to lose all 
power of further movement, and remain during the rest of their 
lives attached to the same spot. 

951. Some kinds of sponges are found on almost all shores; 



975. What varieties are described ? 

976. How do they increase ? 



CLAPS PORIFERA THK SPONGES. 529 

and some frequent deep water, whence they can only be ob- 
tained by dredging. It is in this manner that the common 
sponge is procured from the Mediterranean, the Grecian archi- 
pelago, and the other localities it frequents. Sponges are not 
confined to the sea, however, for there is a species which in- 
habits fresh water, the spongilla >, fluviatilis, or river sponge, and 
which is different in several particulars from the rest. One of 
the most interesting of these is its green colour, which it ac- 
quires under the influence of light, in the same manner as plants. 
But though this character would seem to show its nearer affi- 
nity to the vegetable kingdom, there is another which as strong- 
ly favours the view of its animal nature ; for it shows more 
power of movement, altering the form of the vents from time to 
time. There is a very interesting genus, inhabiting the shores 
of Britain, and chiefly found attached to oyster-shells, which 
it seems to have perforated by some means peculiar to it. In 
this, the Clione, may be observed the general characters of the 
sponge, and the constant circulation peculiar to it; but small 
polypes are occasionally seen to protrude from the vents, indi- 
cating its affinity to the Polypifera. 



952. The knowledge which the naturalist possesses of the 
structure and habits of the inferior tribes of Animals is ex- 
tremely imperfect, and it must be long ere it can be rendered 
complete. Although it might be supposed that the united efforts 
of so many collectors had brought together specimens of all the 
principal groups (to say the least) of the Animal Kingdom, this 
is far from being the case ; for even an ordinary voyager can 
scarcely fail to meet with beings previously unknown, or at any 
rate undescribed; and any one who makes it his business to 
seek for such, will be most certainly rewarded with ample suc- 
cess. Even on our own coasts, new species are being continu- 
ally discovered by naturalists who only visit them occasionally; 
and residents in their neighbourhood are almost sure of being 
able to add to the general stock of knowledge, by the exercise 
of but a moderate amount of patient industry. Those whose 
taste leads them rather to the observation of the habits and 
economy of living animals than to the collection of specimens, 
may find abundant opportunities of contributing to the general 
stock of information on such subjects; for it may be safely 
said, that there is scarcely one of the marine Invertebrata 
\*hose habits have been fully investigated. Of the beneficial 
influence of such pursuits little need be said, for they must be 

977. Name the varieties 

978. What of the perfection of ihia science ? 



530 



ZOOLOGY. 



obvious to every person of ordinary reflection. We think that 
we are improving our minds when we make ourselves ac- 
quainted with the thoughts of other men, whom we reverence 
for their superiority, though they are fallible and erring like 
ourselves. How much more may we le-arn from that Infinite 
Mind, which displays itself in the Creation, whose thoughts of 
wisdom and love present themselves at every step, and whose 
glorious attributes are revealed to us in the exact proportion in 
which we rightly seek to comprehend them 1 

979. What encouragement is given io research ? 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Abranchia, order of the, 252 

Acalaphae, class of the, 497 

Acantheropterygii, order of the, • 262 

Acaridae, the, • • - 387 

Acorn-shell, the, 429 

Actinia, the, 508 

Aculeata, 342 

Agouti, the, 93 

Albatross, the, 202 

Alcyonia, the, 515 

Alligators, the, 216 

Ammonites, 442 

Amphibia, general characters of, 29 
240 

Amphipoda, the, 406 

Amphipneurta, order of the, 251 

Animalcules, 430. 4^3 

Annelida, class of the, 417 

Anomoura, 404 

Anoura, order of the, 242 

Ant-eaters, 95 

Ants, 334, 343 

Antelopidae, family of the, Ill 

Apes, the, 49 

Aphaniptera, order of, 388 

Aphidae, the, 352 

Apidae, the, 347 

Apoda, order of the. 252 

Aphrodita, the, 420 

Arachnida, class of, 3-~6 

Araneidae, the, 390 

Argonauta, the, 442, 446 

Armadillo, the, 96 

Articulata, 21, 287 

Ascaridae, the, 435 

Ascidiae, the, 478 

Ascidioida. the. 518 

Asterias, the, 490 

Asteroida, the, 513 

Ass, the, • 106 

Ateles, the, 53 

Athericera, 377 

Auks, the, 204 

Baboons, the, 51 

Babvroussa, the 104 

Badgers, the, • 79 

Balaenidae, family ot -he, 84 

Banxrings, the, 70 

Barnacle, the, 428 

Basilisk, the, 226 

Bats, family of the, 57 

Bears, 78 

Beavers, 91 

Bee-eaters, 160 



TA.QU 

Bees. 346 

Beetles, 310 

Bimana. order of, 37 

Birds, class of. • 131 

Birds, general characters of. 28 

Birds, skeleton of. 136 

Blackbird, the, 154 

Bombardier beetle, the. 312 

Bombycidae. 368 

Botryllus. the, 479 

Bovidae, family of the. 113 

Brachelytra. • 314 

Brachiopoda. the. 475 

Brachyoura. 41)3 

Brahmin-bull the, 1 14 

Buccinoidre. the. 4 OS 

Bugs. the. 355 

Buffalo, the. 115 

Buh'-buhl. the, 154 

Bustard, the. T.>8 

Butterflies. 36 *, 303 

Caccilia. the. 853 

Camacea?. the. 472 

Camelidae. family of the. 118 

Camelopardas. family of the, •••• 117 

Canida?. family of the, 75 

Cantharis. the. - •• • 

Capridae, family of the, 113 

Capuloidae. the. 462 

Carnivora, order of the, 71 

Cardiaceae, 472 

Carp, the, 270 

Carpophaga. family of the, 124 

Castoridae, family of the. 91 

Cats. 73 

Caterpillars, 360 

Cavidas, family of the, 92 

Caymans, the. 218 

Cebidae, family of the, 52 

Centipedes, 415 

Cephalopoda, class of the, 441 

Cervidae, family of the, 116 

Cetaceae, order of the, -1 

Chameleon, the, 228 

Chamois, the, • • 1 12 

Chatterers, 156 

Cheiromeles, the. 64 

Cheiromys. the. 57 

Cheiroptera, order of the, 57 

Chelonia. order of the. • 206 

Chimpansee. the. 49 

Chinchi^idae. family of the. 93 

Chrondoptervgii, order of the, •• 2 SI 

Cicadida?.. the, 350 

531 



h\l 



INDEX. 



PAOB 

v^ihograda, the, 500 

Cimicidse, 356 

Cirrhigrada, the, 500 

Cirrhopoda, class of the, 426 

Civets the, 76 

Cladocera, the, 407 

Classification of animals, 14 

Clavicornes, 316 

Clavipalpi, 325 

Clio, the, • 449 

Cochineal fly, the, ■ • • 353 

Cockle, the, "' 472 

Colubers, the, 235 

Conirostres, the, 146 

Constrictor, the Boa, 234 

Coati mondi, the, 78 

Cockroach, the, 327 

Cod-fishes, • 274 

Corals, 502, 522 

Conchifera, class of the, 465 

Copepoda, order of the, 408 

Couscou, the, 124 

Crabs, 403 

Crickets, 329 

Crinoidea, the, 492 

Crocodiles, 216 

Crossbills, 150 

Crows, 147 

Crustacea class of the, 395 

Chrysochloris, the, 68 

Cuckoos, 177 

Curasow-birds, 183 

Cursores, order of, 186 

Cursoria, 327 

Cyclica, 324 

Cyclobranchiata, the, 464 

Dasyurus, the, 122 

Decapoda, the, 402, 444 

Delphinidae, family of the, 83 

Dibranchiata, order of the, 444 

Dimera. 352 

Dinotherium, the, 108 

Diptera. order of the, 372 

Dipus, the, 9L 

Divers, the, 203 

Divisions of Animal Kingdom, 

Primary, 18 

Dodo, the, 190 

Dog. the, 18, 75 

Dolphins, the, 83 

Dormouse, the, 89 

Dorsibranchiata, the, 419 

Dory, the, 266 

Dragon-fly, the, • • 332 

Dromedary, the, 119 

Ducks, th?, 200 

Eagles, 168 

Earwig, the, 327 

Echidna, the, 126 

Echinidae, tho, 492 



r..an 
Echinodermaia. clasi of the. • • • • 489 

Eels, 276 

Edentata, order of the, 95 

Eft, the. 249 

E. ater beetles, the, 314 

Elephants, 101 

Elk, the, H6 

Enaliosauria, order of the, 213 

Encrinites, the, 492 

Entomophaga, family of the, 123 

Ephemera3, 333 

Equidae, family of the, 106 

Erinaceadce, family of the, 69 

Ernes, 169 

Eupoda, 323 

Falcons, 167 

Fallow-deer, the, 117 

Felidae, family of the, 73 

Ferret, the, 77 

Finches, 143 

Filaria, the, 434 

Fishes cartilaginous, 281 

Fishes, description of, 26, 253 

Fishes, osseous, 260 

Flamingo, the, 197 

Flea, the, 383 

Flounders, 275 

Fly, the common, 378 

Fly-catchers, the, 157 

Flying-fish, the, 263 

Formicida3, the, 343 

Fox, the, 75 

Frog, the fishing, 269 

Frogs, 243 

Fulgoridse, the, 350 

Fungia, the, 511 

Gadfly, the, 376 

Galaeopithecus, the, 56 

Galago monkey, the 55 

Gall-flies, 340 

| Gannet, the, 203 

i Gasteropoda, class of the, 451 

; Gavials, the, 217 

| Geosaurus, ihe. 222 

Glow-worm, the, 315 

Goat-suckers, * 160 

Goats, 113 

Goby, the, 267 

Gorgonia, the, 516 

Gnat-tribe, 374 

Grallatores, order of the, 191 

Grampus, the, 84 

Grasshopper, the, 330 

Griffins, 171 

Grouse, 183 

Guinea-pig, the, 92 

Gulls, the, 200 

Gurnards, the, 263 

Gymnotus. the, 277 

Gyopogeranus, 171 



INDEX. 



533 



WAmm 

Haddock, the, 274 

Hare, the, 94 

Hawk-moths, 365 

Hawks, 169 

Hedgehog, the, 69 

Helianthoida, 508 

Helicinae, the, « 457 

Herons, the, 192 

Heteromera, family of the, 320 

Heteropoda, the, 4G0 

Heteroptera, the, 355 

Hippopotamus, 104 

Holothurida, the, 496 

Homoptera, 349 

Honey-suckers, » •• 164 

Hoopoes, 164 

Hornbills, 149 

Herrings, 273 

Horse, the, 106 

Horses, sea, 278 

Humming-birds, 162 

Hytena, the, - 75 

Hydatids, 436 

Hydra, the, 504 

Hydroida, the, 504 

Hyleea, the, . 450 

Hylae, the, 246 

Hymenoptera, order of the, 336 

Hystricidae, family of the, 92 

Ibex the, 113 

Ichneumonidae, 341 

Ichneumon, the, 77 

Icthyosaurus, the, 214 

Iguanodon. the, 226 

Inclusa, the, 473 

Inferobranchiata, the, 458 

Inia, the, 84 

Insectivora, order of the, 65 

Insects, structure of, 291 

Insessores, order of the, 145 

Isis, the, 517 

Isopoda, order of the, 407 

Iulidae, the, 412 

Jackal, the, 75 

Jaguar, the, 74 

Kangaroo, the, 125 

Kangaroo-rat, the, 126 

King-fishers, ■ 161 

Koala, the, 124 

Laemodipoda, the, 406 

Lagomys, the, 94 

Lamellicornes, 317 

Lamprey, the, 286 

Larva?, insects, in the state of, • • 293 

Leech, the, - • • 424 

Lemming, the. 91 

Lemuridae. family of the, 55 

Leopard, tb «. 74 



PiOI 

Lepidoptera, order of the, 357 

Leporidae, family of the, 94 

Limacinae, the, 456 

Limpet, the, 464 

Lion, the, 74 

Lizards, the, 219, 221 

Llama, the, 119 

Lobster, the, 404 

Locusts, • • • 330 

Lophobranchii, order of the, •••• 278 

Loricata, order of the, 215 

Louse, the, 384 

Lump-fish, the, 276 

Lynx, the, • • • ' 74 

Mackerel, the, 265 

Macroura, 404 

Maigre, the, 264 

Malacopterygii Abdominales, or- 
der of, 270 

Malacopterygii Apoda, 276 

Mammalia, the class, 30 

Mammoth, the, 101 

Man, 37 

Manatidae, family of the, 107 

Mandril, the, 51 

Mantis, the, 327 

Marmot, the, 89 

Marsupialia, order of the, 120 

Mastodon, the, 101 

Medusae, the, 497 

Megalonyx, the, 99 

Megatherium, the, 98 

Melasoma, 320 

Millepedes, 412 

Mites, 387 

Mocking-bird, the, 154 

Moles, the, 68 

Mollusca, the, 22, 424 

Monkeys, 47 

Monitores, the, 221 

Monomera, 353 

Monotremata, order of the, 126 

Morses, the, 80 

Moschidae, family of the, 118 

Moths, 367 

Mouse, the, 90 

Mullet, the, 267 

Muridae, family of the, 90 

Muscidae, the, 378 

Mustelidae, family of the, 77 

Myceti, the, 53 

Myriapoda, class of the, 411 

Myrmeleonidae, 335 

My tilaceae, the, 470 

Narwhal, the, 84 

Natatores, order of the, 199 

Nautilus, the. 442, 446 

Nemocera, • • 374 

Neophrons, 171 

Nereid®, the. 420 



534 



INDEX. 



PAPB 

Newt, the, 249 

Neuroptera, order of the, 331 

Nightingale, the, 155 

Noctilioninae, the, 64 

Notacantna, 376 

Nudibranchiata, the, 458 

Nut-hatcnes, 165 

Nycteris, the, 62 

Ocelot, the, 74 

Octopoda, the, 445 

CEstridae, the, • • • 379 

Ophidia, order of the, 231 

Opossum, the, ' 123 

Orang-outang, the, 49 

Organs of insects, 300 

Ornithorhyncus, the, 78, 126 

Orthoptera, order of the, 325 

Orycteropus, the, 97 

Ospreys, 169 

Ostraceae, the, 468 

Ostrapoda, 409 

Otters, 77 

Ounce, the, 74 

Ovo-viviparous Mammalia, 33 

Owls, 172 

Oyster, the, • . 468 

Ox-tribe, the, 113 

Palaeotherium, the, 105 

Palpicornes, 316 

Pangolins, 95 

Panther, the, 74 

Paradise, birds of, 164 

Parisita, order of the, 384 

Parrots, 180 

Pectinibranchiata, 460 

Pelicans, the, 202 

Penguins, the, 204 

Pentamera, 310 

Perches, 262 

Petaurus, the, 124 

Petrel, the, 201 

Phalangers, the, 122 

Pheasants, 181 

Phocidse, family of the, 79 

Phryganeidae, the, 380 

Phy llopoda, the, 408 

Phyllostominae, the, 62 

Physograda, the, 502 

Pig, the, 103 

Pigeons, 185 

Pike, the, 271 

Pipe-mouthed fishes, 270 

Pithecias, the, 54 

Plectognathi, order of the, 279 

Plesiosaurus, the, 214 

Plovers, the, 198 

Poephaga, family of the, 124 

Polecat, the, 77 

Polygastrica. class of the, 483 

. Polypifera, class of the, 502 



Pompilius, the, 447 

Porcupine, the, 92 

Porifera, the, 526 

Porpoise, the, S3 

Proteus, the, 251 

Pterodactylus, 224 

Pteromys, the, 89 

Pteropinae, family of the, 64 

Pteropoda, class of the, 448 

Pteropas Javinicus, the, 64 

Pulicidae, the, 3S3 

Pulmonia, order of the, 456 

Pulmonigrada, the, 499 

Puma, the, 74 

Pupa state of insects, 295 

Pupipara, 379 

Pyrosoma, the, 480 

Quadrumana, order of, 47 

Quagga, the, 106 

Rabbit,the, 94 

Races of men, 44 

Racoon, the, 78 

Radiata, the, 23, 481 

Rails, the, 196 

Raptores, order of the, 165 

Rasores, order of the, 180 

Rays, 285 

Rats, • • 90 

Rattlesnake, the, 236 

Rein-deer, the, 116 

Reptiles, general characters, -27, 205 

Rhinoceros, the, 105 

Rhinolophinae, family of the, 62 

Rhizophaga, family of the, 1 26 

Rhyncophorae, 321 

Rodenti a, order of the, 86 

Rorqual, the, 85 

Rotifera, class of the, • • • • 430 

Salamanders, the, 250 

Salmon, the, 272 

Salpae, the, 4i>0 

Saltatoria, 329 

Sarcophaga, family of the, 122 

Sauria, order of the 230 

Scarabaeus, the, 318 

Sciuridae, family of, 88 

Scolopendridae, the, 414 

Scutibranchiata, the, 463 

Sea-bream, the, 264 

Seals, 80 

Selachii, order of the, 282 

Sepia, the, 444 

Serpents, the, 231 

Serricornes, 314 

Sertularidae, the, 507 

Scansores order of, 175 

. Scorpions, 380 

! Sharks, 282 

Sheep, the, 113 



INDEX. 



532 



PAGE 

Shells of mollusca, 438, 451 

Shrews, the, 69 

Shrikes, 152 

Silk-moth, 368 

Silurus, the, 272 

Simiadae, family of the, 49 

Siren, the, 251 

Skink, the, 230 

Skunk,the, 77 

Sloth, the, 97 

Slug, the, 456 

Snail, the, 457 

Snipes, 194 

Solidungula, family of the, 106 

Soricidae, family of the, 69 

Spermaceti whale, the, 84 

Sphinges, 365 

Spiders, 386, 390 

Sponge, the, 526 

Spring-bok, the, 112 

Springtails, 385 

Squirrel, the, 88 

Stags, •• 116 

Starlings, 147 

Stelleridae, the, 490 

Stemapoda, the, 405 

Strepsiptera, order of the, 381 

Structure of Animals, General, • 11 

Sturgeons, 281 

Suctoria, the, 424 

Suidae, family of the, 103 

Sun-birds, • 163 

Sun-fish, the, 279 

Swallows, 159 

Sword-fish, the. 265 

Taenia, the, 435 

Talpidae, family of the, 66 

Tanystoma, 376 

Tapindae, family of the, 104 

Tarantula, the, 389 

Tardigrada, family of the, 97 

Tectibranchiata, the, 459 

Terebrantia, 339 

Terricola, the, 422 

Tetraniera family, the, 321 

Thrushes, 153 

Thvsancura, order of, • ••• 384 

Tiger, the, 74 

Tineidae, or clothes' moths, 371 

Tipulidae, 375 

Titmouse, the, 156 

Toads, the, 246 

Todies, 161 

Tortoises, land, and mud, --^lO, 211 



Toucans, 178 

Trachearia, order of the, 387 

Tree-creepers, 165 

Trichoptera, order of the, 380 

1 Trilobites, 410 

Trimera, 325, 350 

Trionyx, the, 212 

Tritons, the, 249 

Trout, the, 273 

Tubicolae, the, 421 

Tubulibranchiata. 463 

Tunicata, class of, 476 

Tupaiada, family of the, 70 

Turbot, the, 275 

Turtles, the, 207 

Unguiculated group of animals,- 35 
Ungulated group of animals, • • • • 36 

Urchins, the, •••< 69 

Urodela, order of the, 248 

Ursidae, family of the, 78 

I 

I Vampyre, the. 62 

Veneris, the Cestum, 501 

Vertebrata, the, 20, 24 

j Vespertilionidae, the, 63 

, Vespidae, 345 

i Viper, the, 236 

| Viviparous, Mammalia, the, • • • • 33 

i Voles, 91 

Volvox Glob ator, the, 487 

Vulturus, 16° 

Walrus, the, 81 

Warblers, 154 

Wasps, 345 

Wax-wing, the, 156 

Weasels, 77 

Weevil, the, 321 

Whales, 81 

Wheel animalcule, 430 

I Wingless insects, 383 

j Wolf, the. 75 

I Wolverine, the, •••• 79 

Wombat, the, 126 

Wood-louse, the, 407 

Woodpeckers, 175 

Worm, the Earth, 422 

I Wrasse, the, 269 



Xylophagi, • 

Xyphosura, the, 

Zebra, the, 



322 
410 



106 



STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON & CO. 
PHILADELPHIA. 









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